‘This is a wonderful book that should be on the desk of every architect and planner. It shows how


What would provide adequate incentives for such a shift in our approach?



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Positive Development From Vicious Circles to V

What would provide adequate incentives for such a shift in our approach?
It has been argued throughout this book that nature can be allowed to maintain itself, but also to 
provide ‘surplus’ eco-services. This would be new in human history, so it requires a fundamental 
shift. The problems of food, water and global warming are essential to national security as well 
as to human survival. It is odd, therefore, that we do not rely on the market system for national 
security, but we rely on markets to provide ‘natural security’. Of course, the idea that value-adding 
costs more may often be true when we are trying to mitigate negative impacts. We have seen how 
marginal thinking and markets discourage the idea of zero waste. They can also work to reinforce 
the mindset that we gain more by being frugal with positive actions. We need to overcome the 
belief in the ‘law of diminishing returns’ as applied to improving the built environment. The 
tendency toward marginal thinking and reliance on marginal market mechanisms can also work 
against positive forms of competition. Presently, cities can only compete to be the most sustainable 


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Eco-service Trading Schemes
by having a relatively less negative ecological footprint. In such cases, the outcomes would 
usually be more a function of historic coincidence than of affirmative actions anyway, despite 
impressive efforts to ‘green’ some cities, such as Chicago. If, on the other hand, we recognized the 
possibility of positive impacts, we might instead begin to compete towards positive goals, such as 
the greatest amount of new ecological space per capita each year. Of course, there are many other 
systemic reasons why the institution of planning, in its broadest sense, has only aimed to mitigate 
the externalities of development at the margins. Therefore, we need to examine some basic 
paradigmatic and process problems within planning itself. Next we briefly critique traditional 
planning thought and bioregional reforms, with a view to how urban and regional planning could 
be made more relevant to sustainability.





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