.
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 188 (2021) 290–299
293
good transparency, particularly when glycerol content was increased. By
replacing glycerol with xylitol or sorbitol, the films turned opaque and
their opacity decreased as the mixed plasticizer content was increased.
The results suggest that a higher plasticizing effect promotes TPS film
transparency. In addition, the turbidity of GX and GS films over that of G
might be relevant to the migration of unplasticized xylitol and sorbitol to
the film surfaces, which later formed crystals
[12]
. It should be noted
that the blown film extrusion of G and its thickness during the blowing
process were more easily controlled than those of GX and GS.
3.2. Melt flow ability
The melt flowability of TPS was evaluated from the melt flow index
(MFI), measured at 190
◦
C with a load cell of 3.2 kg. MFI values of G
were in the range of 3.7
–
8.6 g/10 min, while those of GX and GS were
approximately 1.7
–
3.6 g/10 min and 1.4
–
3.4 g/10 min, respectively
(
Fig. 1
). The decreased melt flowability, or the significantly increased
melt viscosity, of TPS achieved by replacing glycerol with xylitol or
sorbitol, was most likely due to the lower plasticizing effect resulting
from the larger-molecular-sized plasticizer, which led to limited effi-
ciency in disrupting the intermolecular hydrogen bonds between starch
chains, or in other words, restricted polymer chain mobility. MFI values
of TPS also increased with increasing plasticizer content. The improved
melt flowability, or decreased viscosity, of TPS as a function of plasti-
cizer content was consistent with the processability of TPS.
3.3. Chemical composition and molecular interaction
FTIR spectroscopy was applied to examine the chemical composition
and molecular interaction of the components in TPS. All TPS showed a
similar FTIR absorption band at a wavenumber range of 500
–
3000 cm
−
1
(
Fig. 2
A). The first dominant broad band observed between 3000 cm
−
1
and 3600 cm
−
1
was attributed to the complex vibrational stresses
associated with the free, inter- and intra-molecular bonds of hydroxyl
groups
[8,9]
. The peak at 2927 cm
−
1
was associated with C
–
H
stretching (-CH
2
) of the anhydroglucose ring
[6]
, and the peak at 1636
cm
−
1
with the tightly bound water presented in the starch structure
[8]
due to its hygroscopic nature. Tiefenbacher
[13]
reported that the
tightly bound water is the water that is tightly and directly associated
with starch molecules through ion-dipole interaction, which is stronger
than normal water
–
water binding. The peaks between 1149 cm
−
1
and
994 cm
−
1
were associated with the interactions between starch mole-
cules and plasticizers
[6]
; particularly, the peak at 994 cm
−
1
was related
to the intramolecular hydrogen bonds of hydroxyl groups or the plasti-
cizing effect by water in the film
[9]
. The plasticization of starch by
water could obstruct both inter- and intramolecular hydrogen bonds of
starch hydroxyl groups. It is interesting to note that the peak at 997
cm
−
1
of native cassava starch (
Fig. 2
Ba) was split into two peaks after
plasticization (
Fig. 2
Bb-i); the new peak appeared at 1016 cm
−
1
was
attributed to the vibrational modes within the amorphous domains of
starch
[14]
. In addition, the peak at 997 cm
−
1
was slightly shifted to
994
–
996 cm
−
1
for glycerol- (
Fig. 2
Bb-d), glycerol/xylitol- (
Fig. 2
Be-g)
and glycerol/sorbitol-plasticized starch (
Fig. 2
Bh-i), demonstrating the
interactions between starch molecules and plasticizers
[6,15]
.
During film blowing at ambient temperature, water plays a key role
in the hydroxyl absorption band (3000
–
3500 cm
−
1
); as a result,
hydrogen bond interaction was difficult to evaluate from the spectra
characterized at ambient temperature because of the moisture absorp-
tion effect. Therefore, the temperature-dependent FTIR spectra of the
films were analyzed at various temperatures from 30
◦
C to 170
◦
C
(
Fig. 2
C), and to avoid the effect of moisture absorption, only the spectra
measured at temperatures above 90
◦
C were considered.
Fig. 2
C shows
that the peak at 994
–
996 cm
−
1
exhibited gradually decreased intensity
as a function of temperature and almost disappeared at 170
◦
C, sug-
gesting reduced intermolecular interaction between starch with plasti-
cizers. In addition, the OH band of all TPS shifted to a higher frequency
when the temperature was increased (
Fig. 2
C), reflecting a reduction in
the average strength of the hydrogen bonds. However, the level of the
OH band shift was dependent on both molecular size and concentration
of plasticizer, as summarized in
Fig. 2
D. TPS films with high plasticizer
content exhibited a greater degree of OH band blue shift, indicating
easier destruction of hydrogen bonds between starch-starch molecules
due to the greater intervention of plasticizer molecules, or in other
words, the plasticizing effect. Likewise, the films with smaller-sized
plasticizer exhibited a greater degree of OH band blue shift due to the
better plasticizing effect.
3.4. Moisture content
The moisture content of TPS is shown in
Table 2
. The glycerol-
plasticized TPS films possessed moisture content in the range of
17.3
–
19.5%, whereas the films with mixed plasticizers of glycerol/
xylitol and glycerol/sorbitol exhibited moisture content in the ranges of
8.0
–
9.5% and 7.5
–
8.9%, respectively. The significantly higher moisture
content of the films plasticized with glycerol is attributed to the fact that
glycerol has greater water affinity
[16]
and is much more hygroscopic
than xylitol
[9]
and sorbitol
[16]
. Similar findings have been reported by
Dias, Müller, Larotonda and Laurindo
[16]
, Muscat, Adhikari, Adhikari
and Chaudhary
[9]
, and Liu and Chaudhary
[17]
. The effect could also
be attributed to the better efficiency of a lower-molecular-weight plas-
ticizer such as glycerol resulting in a greater reduction of the intermo-
lecular interaction of starch with increased free volume
[4]
. In addition,
the moisture content of the TPS films tended to increase with a greater
concentration of plasticizers.
3.5. Crystal structure
The crystal type of starch and crystallinity of TPS were examined by
X-ray diffraction.
Fig. 3
a shows that native cassava starch possesses the
main diffraction peaks at 2
θ
of 15.1
◦
, 17.2
◦
, 18.2
◦
, 20.1
◦
, and 23.2
◦
,
corresponding to the pattern of A-B-type crystal
[18]
. All TPS films
showed characteristic diffraction peaks at 2
θ
of 13.1
◦
, 18.2
◦
, 19.4
◦
, and
24.1
◦
(
Fig. 3
b-i). The very shallow intensity peak at 2
θ
of 13.1
◦
was
ascribed to V
A
-type crystals formed by unstable single helical structure
complexation of amylose and plasticizer and containing a low amount of
water, whereas the peak at 2
θ
of 19.4
◦
was denoted as V
H
structure and
contained more water than V
A
lattice
[19]
. The peak at 2
θ
of 18.2
◦
was
attributed to a single helical E
H
structure
[20]
, while the last crystal-
linity peak observed at 24.05
◦
corresponded to B-type crystals, which
Fig. 1.
Melt flow index of different TPS as mentioned in
Section 2.2
: (a) G38,
(b) G40, (c) G42, (d) GX38, (e) GX40, (f) GX42, (g) GS38, (h) GS40, and
(i) GS42.
K.M. Dang and R. Yoksan
International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 188 (2021) 290–299
294
might form during storage or at high water uptake
[21]
. This B-type
crystal is the most sensitive to hydration
[22]
.
Different from G, which showed a high intensity of V
H
-type diffrac-
tion peak at 19.4
◦
(
Fig. 3
b-d), GX and GS exhibited a dominant E
H
-type
peak at 18.2
◦
(
Fig. 3
e-i). Previously, van Soest, Hulleman, de Wit and
Vliegenthart
[20]
reported that V
H-
type crystals were formed at low
temperature and pressure during the process and found in the extruded
TPS containing high moisture content of more than 10%, whereas the E
H
structure was observed in the extruded TPS possessing relatively lower
moisture content of less than 10%. The E
H-
type crystallinity also
increased with increasing temperature and pressure during extrusion
due to the liberation of amylose resulting from the increased disruption
of the starch granular structure
[20]
. In this study, G was extruded in less
severe conditions and contained higher moisture content (17.3
–
19.5%,
Table 2
) than GX and GS (7.4
–
9.4%,
Table 2
); therefore, very stable V
H
-
type crystals were mainly found in the case of G. In contrast, GX and GS
were extruded using a higher shear and more energy than G and their
Fig. 2.
(A) FTIR spectrum of TPS film, (B) magnification of the FTIR spectra at a wavenumber region of 800
–
1200 cm
−
1
, (C) FTIR spectra of TPS film analyzed at
different temperatures from 30
◦
C to 170
◦
C, and (D) the shift of OH band of TPS films: (a) native cassava starch and (b)-(i) different TPS blown films as mentioned in
Section 2.2
: (b) G38, (c) G40, (d) G42, (e) GX38, (f) GX40, (g) GX42, (h) GS40, and (i) GS42.
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