Theoritical aspects

2.2. Structural and Semantic analysis
The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. The role of the affix in this procedure is very important and, therefore it is necessary to consider certain facts about the main types of affixes.
From the etymological point of view affixes are classified into the same two large groups as words: native and borrowed.
Some Native Suffixes.
-er worker, miner, teacher, painter . . .
-ness coldness, loneliness, loveliness . . .
-ing feeling, meaning, singing, reading . . .
-dom freedom, kingdom, wisdom . . .
-hood childhood, manhood, motherhood . . .
-ship friendship, mastership, companionship . . .
-ful careful, joyful, wonderful, sinful, skillful...
-less careless, sleepless, cloudless, senseless . . .
-y tidy, merry, snowy, showy . . .
-ish English, Spanish, reddish, childish . . .
-ly lonely, lovely, usly, likely, lordly . . .
-en wooden, woolen, silken, golden . . .
-some handsome, quarrelsome, tiresome . . .
-en widen, redden, darken, sadden . . .
-ly warmly, hardly, simply, carefully, coldly . . . .
Borrowed affixes, especially of Romance origin are numerous in the English vocabulary. It would be wrong though, to suppose that affixes are borrowed in the same way and for the same reasons as words. An affix of foreign origin can be regarded as borrowed only after it has begun an independent and active in the recipient language, that is, is taking part in the word- making processes of that language. This can only occur when the total of words with this affix is so great in the recipient language as to affect the native speakers subconscious to the extent that they no longer realize its foreign flavor and accept it as their own.
Affixes can also be classified into productive and non­productive types. By productive affixes we mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development. The best way to identify productive affixes is to look for them among neologisms and so-called nonse-words, words coined and used only for this particular occasion. The latter are usually formed on the level of living speech and reflect the most productive and progressive patterns in word-building. When a literary critic writes about a certain book that it is an unputdownable thriller, we will seek in vain this strange and impressive adjective in dictionaries, for it is a nonse- word coined on the current pattern of Modern English and is evidence of the high productivity of the adjective-forming borrowed suffix -able and the native prefix un- .
The adjective thinnish and baldish bring to mind dozens of other adjectives made with the same suffix: oldish, youngish, mannis , girlish ,fattish, longish, yellowish.
But dispectic - lookingish is the author's creation aimed at a humorous effect and, at the same time, proving beyond doubt that the suffix -ish is a live and active one.
The same is well-illustrated by the following popular statement: "I don`t like Sunday evenings. I feel so Mondayish ". (Mondayish is certainly a nonce-word.)
One should not confuse the productivity of affixes with their frequency of occurance. There are quite a number of high-frequency affixes which, nevertheless , are no longer used in word-derivation.

Some Productive Affixes


Noun-forming suffixes -er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist, -ance
Adjective-forming suffixes -y, -ish, -ed, -able, -less...
Verb-forming suffixes -ise/-ize, -ate...
Adverb-forming suffixes -ly...
Prefixes -un-, re-, dis-...
Some Non- Productive Affixes
Noun-forming suffixes -th,-hood...
Adjective-forming suffixes -ly,-some,-en,-ous...
Verb-formingsuffixes-en...
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems. On the morphemic level every word formed by means of affixation has only one root- morpheme, which is its semantic center and one or more derivational affixes to stems On the morphemic level every word formed by means of affixation has only one root-morpheme, which is its semantic center and one or more derivational affixes.
For instance , the words displease and realism have each only one root-morpheme and one derivational affix - the prefix dis- and the suffix -ism , whereas the noun reappearance consists of the prefix re- , the root-morpheme appear- and the suffix - ance.
On the derivational level derived words comprise a primary stem (the stem being in itself either a simple, a derived or a compound stem), friendliness = (noun + ly) + -ness (a derived stem), chairmanship = (noun + noun) +ship (a compound stem). The stems of words making up a word-cluster enter into derivational relations of different degrees. The zero degree of derivation is ascribed to simple words, i.e. words whose stem is homonymous with a root-morpheme, e.g. atom, haste , devote... Derived words whose stems consist of a root-morpheme and a derivational affix are described as having the first degree of derivation , e.g. atomic , hasty , devotion ... Derived words formed by two consecutive stages of coining possess the second degree of derivation, e.g. atomic hasty, devotion...
The following diagram graphically represents the hierarchy of derivational relations within a word-cluster, the indexes 0, 1, 2, etc. indicating the corresponding degree of derivation:
In conformity with the division of derivational affixes into suffixes and prefixes affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixation. Distinction is naturally made between prefixal and suffixal derivatives: unjust, rearrange; justify, arrangement.
Words like reappearance, unreasonable, denationalize are generally qualified as prefixal-suffixal derivatives. The reader should clearly realize that this qualification is relevant only in terms of the constituent morphemes such words are made up of i.e. from the angle of morphemic analysis. From the point of view of derivational analysis such words are mostly suffixal or prefixal derivatives e.g. reappearance = (re + appear -) + -ance, unreasonable = un- + (reason- + _-able), denationalize = de- + (nation + ize) .A careful study of a great many suffixal and prefixal derivatives has revealed an essential difference between them. In Modern English suffixation is characteristic of noun and adjective formation, while prefixation is typical of verb formation. As a general rule, prefixes modify the lexical meaning of stem to which they are added. A prefixal derivative usually joins the part of speech the unprefixed word belongs to e.g.
un - usual -cf. usual; indefinite -cf. definite; discomfort -cf. comfort etc.
In a suffixal derivative the suffix doesn't only modify the lexical meaning of the stem it is affixed to, but the word itself is usually transferred to another part of speech e.g.
care - less a - cf care n ; suit - able - a ; good - ness good. Furthermore, it's necessary to point out that a suffix closely knit together with a stem forms a prefix which is as a general rule, more independent semantically, reading - "the act of one who reads " ; "ability to read" ; and to re-read - "to read again".


The origin of affixes.
Affixation is the formation of words with the help of derivational affixes. Affixation is subdivided into prefixation and suffixation.
For instance, if a prefix "dis" is added to the stem "like" (dislike) or suffix "ful" to "law" (lawful) we say a word is built by an affixation. Derivational morphemes added before the stem of a word are called prefixes (e.g. un+like) and the derivational morphemes added after the stem of the word are called suffixes (hand+ful). Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the stem meaning i.e. the prefixed derivative mostly belongs to the same part of speech.
Examples include, like (v) - dislike (v); kind (adj) - unkind (adj), but suffixes transfer words to different part of speech.
Another example, teach (v) - teacher (n). But new investigations into the problem of prefixation in English showed interesting results. It appears that the traditional opinion, current among linguists that prefixes modify only the lexical meaning of words without changing the part of speech is not quite correct. In English there are about 25 prefixes which can transfer words to a different part of speech, such as , head (n) - behead (v), bus (n) - debus (v), brown (adj) - embrown (v), title (n) - entitle (v),large (adj) - enlarge (v), camp (n) - encamp (v), war (n) - prewar (v)...
If it is so we can say that there is no functional difference between suffixes and prefixes. Besides, there are linguists who treat prefixes as a part of word-composition. They think that a prefix has the same function as the first component of a compound word. Other linguists consider prefixes as derivational affixes which differ essentially from root- morphemes and stems. From that point of view of their origin affixes may be native and borrowed. The suffixes -ness, -ish , -dom , -ful, -less , -ship and prefixes be- , mis- , un- , fore- etc. are of native origin. They came from the Greek, Latin and French language³. Many of suffixes and the suffixes of native origin were independent words. In the course of time they have lost their independence and turned into derivational affixes. For instance, -dom, -hood "head-state " , rank, -dom (dom condemn), -ship has developed from noun "scipe" (meaning:state); the adjective forming suffix -ly has developed from the noun "lie" (body, shape). The prefixes out-, under- , over- and others have developed out of independent words. Another problem of the study of affixes homonymic affixes. Homonymic affixes are affixes which have the same sound form, spelling but different meanings and they are added to different parts of speech.
Examples include, -ful(l) forms adjectives from a noun : love (v) - loveful (adj) ; man (v) - manful (adj);
-ful(2) forms adjective from a verb : forget (v) - forgetful
(adj) ; thank (v) - thankful (adj).
-ly( 1) added to an adjective stem is homonymous to the
adjective forming suffix ;
-ly(2) which is added to a noun stem : quickly, slowly and lovely, friendly.
The verb suffix -en(l) is added to a noun and adjective stem is homonymous to the adjective forming suffix;
-en(2) which is added to a noun stem:
Examples are to strengthen, to soften, to wooden, to golden. The prefix un- (1) is added to a noun and a verb stem is homonymous to the prefix;
un- (2) which is added to an adjective stem, such as: unshoe, unbind, unfair, untrue.
In the course of the history of the English as a result of borrowings there appeared many synonymous affixes in the language , such as :the suffixes -er , -or , -ist, -ent, -ant, -eer , -ian, -man , -ее , -ess form synonymous affixes denoting the meaning "agent". Having the meaning of negation the prefixes un- , in-, non-, dis-, mis- form synonymic group of prefixes. If s interestng to point out that the synonymous affixes help us to reveal, different lexico-semantic grouping of words.
For example, the words formed by the suffixes -man , -er , -or , -ion , -ее , -eer , -ent, -ant and some others belong to
the lexico-semantic groupings of words denoting "doer of the action ".
The affixes may be undergo semantic changes, they may be polysemantic.
The noun forming suffix -er has the following meanings:
1)persons following some special trade and profession (,driver, teacher, hunter);
2)persons doing a certain action at the moment in question (packer, chooser , giver);