Theme: Geographical position, territorial division, climate, population of the Republic of Uzbekistan Lecture Plan

Theme: Geographical position, territorial division, climate, population of the Republic of Uzbekistan

Lecture 2.

Plan:

• Geographical position of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
• Mountains, lakes, and rivers of Uzbekistan.
• The regions, bordered countries, cities of Uzbekistan.
• Climate, flora and fauna.
• Population and ethnic group of people in Uzbekistan

• Key words:, surrounded, foothills, terrain, extensive, elevations, latitudinal, high-altitude, Paleozoic, Turan plate, alpine, orogenesis, Aral Sea basin, Tien Shan, topography, precipitationfalls (yog'ingarchilik), vegetation, agrochemicals, devastation, ecosystem (o'rab olingan, etaklari, relefi, kengliklari, balandliklari, kengligi, baland tog’, paleozoy erasi, Turon platosi, alp, oroganez, Orol dengizi havzasi, Tyan-Shan, topografiya, yog'ingarchiliklar, o'simlik, agrokimyoviy moddalar, vayronagarchilik, ekotizim), pesticides(a substance used for destroying insects or other organisms harmful to cultivated plants or to animals, pestitsidlar), herbicides(a substance that is toxic to plants, used to destroy unwanted vegetation, gerbitsidlar), defoliants(A defoliant is a chemical used on trees and plants to make all their leaves fall off, barglarning tushishi), fertilizers(a chemical or natural substance added to soil or land to increase its fertility, o'g'it), emission- ajralib chiqqan narsa, filter, gaseous- gazsimon, nitrous dioxide- azot dioksidi, automotive exhaust-avtomobil chiqindisi, over-grazing-ortiqcha o’tlar, copper, zinc(mis, rux), arsenic(the chemical element of atomic number 33, a brittle steel-grey semimetal, margimush), lead, cadmium, evaporation, pathogens, rehabilitation(qo'rg'oshin, kadmiy, bug'lanish, patogenlar, reabilitatsiya).

Uzbekistan is a country of  Central Asia, located north of Turkmenistan  and Afghanistan. With an area of 447,000 square kilometers (approximately the size of Spain or California), Uzbekistan stretches 1,425 km (885 mi) from west to east and 930 km (580 mi) from north to south. Bordering Turkmenistan to the southwest, Kazakhstan to the north, and Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to the south and east.

• Uzbekistan is a country of  Central Asia, located north of Turkmenistan  and Afghanistan. With an area of 447,000 square kilometers (approximately the size of Spain or California), Uzbekistan stretches 1,425 km (885 mi) from west to east and 930 km (580 mi) from north to south. Bordering Turkmenistan to the southwest, Kazakhstan to the north, and Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to the south and east.
• Uzbekistan is not only one of the larger Central Asian states but also the only Central Asian state to border all of the other four. Uzbekistan also shares a short border with Afghanistan to the south. As the Caspian Sea is an inland sea with no direct link to the oceans, Uzbekistan is one of only two "doubly landlocked" countries—countries completely surrounded by other landlocked countries.

Geography of Uzbekistan is mainly represented by deserts and mountains, and, in some areas - by valleys and lowlands.

• Geography of Uzbekistan is mainly represented by deserts and mountains, and, in some areas - by valleys and lowlands.
• Approximately 80% of Uzbekistan is presented by a desert, namely, the Kyzylkum desert.
• Mountains of the country are the foothills and lower mountains of the Tien-Shan system.
• The highest point of Uzbekistan is the Mount Adelunga (4 301 meters).
• Geographically the land of Uzbekistan is 448.9 thousand sq. km. In Central Asia in size of the territory, Uzbekistan is inferior to Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan, but at the same time it occupies a large area compared to such European countries as Great Britain (2 times), Denmark (4 times), Switzerland (10 times) and Belgium (14 times).

However, despite its long form, the time of Uzbekistan is not scattered over several time zones. And it is +5 hours to Greenwich. And this is very convenient.

• However, despite its long form, the time of Uzbekistan is not scattered over several time zones. And it is +5 hours to Greenwich. And this is very convenient.
• Uzbekistan has quite rich climatic, land, water and some other natural resources, as well as a number of minerals.

On the territory of Uzbekistan there are also deserted plains, among which the extensive desert of Kyzylkum stands out. There are mountains with high-zonal landscapes, low elevations, and inland waters. The complexity of the terrain, the features of latitudinal and high-altitude location provide a significant diversity of the landscape appearance of the territory.

• On the territory of Uzbekistan there are also deserted plains, among which the extensive desert of Kyzylkum stands out. There are mountains with high-zonal landscapes, low elevations, and inland waters. The complexity of the terrain, the features of latitudinal and high-altitude location provide a significant diversity of the landscape appearance of the territory.
• In general, Uzbekistan nature and geography has experienced a strong impact of human activity, and the share of cultural and transformed landscapes in Uzbekistan is particularly high.

The territory of diluvial Uzbekistan arose as a result of Paleozoic mountain formation (about 300 million years ago). It was then when the Turan plate and the land formed. Later for a long time this plate had been covered by the sea. Mountain systems were finally forming a phase of alpine orogenesis; the products of the destruction of the uplifting mountains were carried to the plains and layered over the marine deposits. The growth of the mountains contributed to the drought of the climate, and gradually huge deserts appeared. Wandering rivers and winds repeatedly deposited the superfluous loose strata. So the sands of the Karakum and Kyzylkum were formed. The water content of the rivers and the moistening of the territory also changed.

• The territory of diluvial Uzbekistan arose as a result of Paleozoic mountain formation (about 300 million years ago). It was then when the Turan plate and the land formed. Later for a long time this plate had been covered by the sea. Mountain systems were finally forming a phase of alpine orogenesis; the products of the destruction of the uplifting mountains were carried to the plains and layered over the marine deposits. The growth of the mountains contributed to the drought of the climate, and gradually huge deserts appeared. Wandering rivers and winds repeatedly deposited the superfluous loose strata. So the sands of the Karakum and Kyzylkum were formed. The water content of the rivers and the moistening of the territory also changed.

Only in places where the Paleozoic foundation appears above the late deposits (for example, in the Kyzylkum) the island mountains arose. Only the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai became really high mountains.

• Only in places where the Paleozoic foundation appears above the late deposits (for example, in the Kyzylkum) the island mountains arose. Only the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai became really high mountains.
• Each major natural region of the Republic is distinguished by its combination of relief forms. Uzbekistan lies in the Aral Sea basin. The area, occupied by rivers and lakes is 4.92%.
• Total water resources are 50-60 cubic km. per year. Only 12.2 cubic km. are formed on the land, and the actual volume of water comes from outside - from the mountains. Therefore, the maximum flow of water in the rivers comes at the hottest time.

The largest rivers of the country are the Amu Darya and Syr Darya.

• The largest rivers of the country are the Amu Darya and Syr Darya.
• Flats in Uzbekistan do not participate in the creation of surface runoff, but they actively consume it. Here, the water coming from the mountains is being intensively disassembled for irrigation.
• On the plains there are lakes and reservoirs: Sudoche, Arnasai, Chardara, Charvak, etc.

The nature of Uzbekistan geographically

• The nature of Uzbekistan geographically
• The location of Uzbekistan in such a contradictory geographical environment served the fact that, going about the country, you can catch yourself thinking that you, while on the territory of one state, have visited several countries at once. So, for example, the western areas are more deserted, and are represented mainly by plains. And this makes Uzbekistan tours quite convenient and attractive. However, gradually approaching the eastern regions of the country, it becomes apparent how the landscape becomes more mountainous and sublime, and all this is crowned with snowy peaks of the Tien Shan.

The Ferghana Valley can be counted the locality with the most optimal climatic conditions in Uzbekistan. It stretches between the north-eastern and south-eastern mountain ranges. Here the agricultural industry is developing, which allows the locals to conduct trades at internal and external markets.

• The Ferghana Valley can be counted the locality with the most optimal climatic conditions in Uzbekistan. It stretches between the north-eastern and south-eastern mountain ranges. Here the agricultural industry is developing, which allows the locals to conduct trades at internal and external markets.

The physical environment of Uzbekistan is diverse, ranging from the flat, desert topography that comprises almost 80% of the country's territory to mountain peaks in the east reaching about 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) above sea level. The southeastern portion of Uzbekistan is characterized by the foothills of the Tian Shan mountains, which rise higher in neighboring Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan and form a natural border between Central Asia and China. The vast Qizilqum (Turkic for "red sand"—Russian spelling Kyzyl Kum) Desert, shared with southern Kazakhstan, dominates the northern lowland portion of Uzbekistan. The most fertile part of Uzbekistan, the Fergana Valley, is an area of about 21,440 square kilometres (8,280 sq mi) directly east of the Qizilqum and surrounded by mountain ranges to the north, south, and east. The western end of the valley is defined by the course of the Syr Darya, which runs across the northeastern sector of Uzbekistan from southern Kazakhstan into the Qizilqum. Although the Fergana Valley receives just 100 to 300 millimetres (3.9 to 11.8 in) of rainfall per year, only small patches of desert remain in the center and along ridges on the periphery of the valley.

• The physical environment of Uzbekistan is diverse, ranging from the flat, desert topography that comprises almost 80% of the country's territory to mountain peaks in the east reaching about 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) above sea level. The southeastern portion of Uzbekistan is characterized by the foothills of the Tian Shan mountains, which rise higher in neighboring Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan and form a natural border between Central Asia and China. The vast Qizilqum (Turkic for "red sand"—Russian spelling Kyzyl Kum) Desert, shared with southern Kazakhstan, dominates the northern lowland portion of Uzbekistan. The most fertile part of Uzbekistan, the Fergana Valley, is an area of about 21,440 square kilometres (8,280 sq mi) directly east of the Qizilqum and surrounded by mountain ranges to the north, south, and east. The western end of the valley is defined by the course of the Syr Darya, which runs across the northeastern sector of Uzbekistan from southern Kazakhstan into the Qizilqum. Although the Fergana Valley receives just 100 to 300 millimetres (3.9 to 11.8 in) of rainfall per year, only small patches of desert remain in the center and along ridges on the periphery of the valley.

Water resources, which are unevenly distributed, are in short supply in most of Uzbekistan. The vast plains that occupy two-thirds of Uzbekistan's territory have little water, and there are few lakes. The two largest rivers feeding Uzbekistan are the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya, which originate in the mountains of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, respectively. These rivers form the two main river basins of Central Asia; they are used primarily for irrigation, and several artificial canals have been built to expand the supply of arable land in the Fergana Valley and elsewhere. During the Soviet Era, a plan was devised in which Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan provided water from these two rivers to Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan in summer, and these three countries provided Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan with oil and gas during the winter in return. However, this system dissolved after the collapse of the USSR, and a new resource-sharing plan has yet to be put in place. According to the International Crisis Group, this situation could lead to irreparable regional destabilization if it is not resolved. A shallow lake, Sarygamysh Lake, sits on the border with Turkmenistan.

• Water resources, which are unevenly distributed, are in short supply in most of Uzbekistan. The vast plains that occupy two-thirds of Uzbekistan's territory have little water, and there are few lakes. The two largest rivers feeding Uzbekistan are the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya, which originate in the mountains of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, respectively. These rivers form the two main river basins of Central Asia; they are used primarily for irrigation, and several artificial canals have been built to expand the supply of arable land in the Fergana Valley and elsewhere. During the Soviet Era, a plan was devised in which Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan provided water from these two rivers to Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan in summer, and these three countries provided Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan with oil and gas during the winter in return. However, this system dissolved after the collapse of the USSR, and a new resource-sharing plan has yet to be put in place. According to the International Crisis Group, this situation could lead to irreparable regional destabilization if it is not resolved. A shallow lake, Sarygamysh Lake, sits on the border with Turkmenistan.

Another important feature of Uzbekistan's physical environment is the significant seismic activity that dominates much of the country. Indeed, much of Uzbekistan's capital city, Tashkent, was destroyed in a major earthquake in 1966, and other earthquakes have caused significant damage before and since the Tashkent disaster. The mountain areas are especially prone to earthquakes.

• Another important feature of Uzbekistan's physical environment is the significant seismic activity that dominates much of the country. Indeed, much of Uzbekistan's capital city, Tashkent, was destroyed in a major earthquake in 1966, and other earthquakes have caused significant damage before and since the Tashkent disaster. The mountain areas are especially prone to earthquakes.

Climate.

• Uzbekistan's climate is classified as continental, with hot summers and cool winters. Summer temperatures often surpass 40 °C (104 °F); winter temperatures average about −2 °C (28 °F), but may fall as low as −40 °C (−40 °F). Most of the country also is quite arid(qurg'oqchil), with average annual rainfall amounting to between 100 and 200 millimeters (3.9 and 7.9 in) and occurring mostly in winter and spring. Between July and September, little precipitation falls, essentially stopping the growth of vegetation during that period of time.

Despite Uzbekistan's rich and varied natural environment, decades of environmental neglect in the Soviet Union have combined with skewed economic policies in the Soviet south to make Uzbekistan one of the gravest of the CIS's many environmental crises. The heavy use of agrochemicals, diversion of huge amounts of irrigation water from the two rivers that feed the region, and the chronic lack of water treatment plants are among the factors that have caused health and environmental problems on an enormous scale.

• Despite Uzbekistan's rich and varied natural environment, decades of environmental neglect in the Soviet Union have combined with skewed economic policies in the Soviet south to make Uzbekistan one of the gravest of the CIS's many environmental crises. The heavy use of agrochemicals, diversion of huge amounts of irrigation water from the two rivers that feed the region, and the chronic lack of water treatment plants are among the factors that have caused health and environmental problems on an enormous scale.

Environmental devastation in Uzbekistan is best exemplified by the catastrophe of the Aral Sea. Because of diversion of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya for cotton cultivation and other purposes, what once was the world's fourth largest inland sea has shrunk in the past thirty years to only about one-third of its 1960 volume and less than half its 1960 geographical size. The desiccation and salinization of the lake have caused extensive storms of salt and dust from the sea's dried bottom, wreaking havoc on the region's agriculture and ecosystems and on the population's health. Desertification has led to the large-scale loss of plant and animal life, loss of arable land, changed climatic conditions, depleted yields on the cultivated land that remains, and destruction of historical and cultural monuments. Every year, many tons of salts reportedly are carried as far as 800 kilometers away. Regional experts assert that salt and dust storms from the Aral Sea have raised the level of particulate matter in the Earth's atmosphere by more than 5%, seriously affecting global climate change.

• Environmental devastation in Uzbekistan is best exemplified by the catastrophe of the Aral Sea. Because of diversion of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya for cotton cultivation and other purposes, what once was the world's fourth largest inland sea has shrunk in the past thirty years to only about one-third of its 1960 volume and less than half its 1960 geographical size. The desiccation and salinization of the lake have caused extensive storms of salt and dust from the sea's dried bottom, wreaking havoc on the region's agriculture and ecosystems and on the population's health. Desertification has led to the large-scale loss of plant and animal life, loss of arable land, changed climatic conditions, depleted yields on the cultivated land that remains, and destruction of historical and cultural monuments. Every year, many tons of salts reportedly are carried as far as 800 kilometers away. Regional experts assert that salt and dust storms from the Aral Sea have raised the level of particulate matter in the Earth's atmosphere by more than 5%, seriously affecting global climate change.

The Aral Sea disaster is only the most visible indicator of environmental decay, however. The Soviet approach to environmental management brought decades of poor water management and lack of water or sewage treatment facilities; inordinately heavy use of pesticides, herbicides, defoliants, and fertilizers in the fields; and construction of industrial enterprises without regard to human or environmental impact. Those policies present enormous environmental challenges throughout Uzbekistan.

• The Aral Sea disaster is only the most visible indicator of environmental decay, however. The Soviet approach to environmental management brought decades of poor water management and lack of water or sewage treatment facilities; inordinately heavy use of pesticides, herbicides, defoliants, and fertilizers in the fields; and construction of industrial enterprises without regard to human or environmental impact. Those policies present enormous environmental challenges throughout Uzbekistan.

Natural hazards: NA.

• Environment – current issues: shrinkage (qisqarishi) of the Aral Sea is resulting in growing concentrations of chemical pesticides and natural salts; these substances are then blown from the increasingly exposed lake bed and contribute to desertification (cho'llanish); water pollution from industrial wastes and the heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides is the cause of many human health disorders; increasing soil salination; soil contamination (ifloslanish) from agricultural chemicals, including DDT(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane- дихлордифенилтрихлорэтан, a synthetic organic compound used as an insecticide.)
• Environment – international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements

Water pollution.

• Large-scale use of chemicals for cotton cultivation, inefficient irrigation systems, and poor drainage systems are examples of the conditions that led to a high filtration of salinized and contaminated water back into the soil. Post-Soviet policies have become even more dangerous; in the early 1990s, the average application of chemical fertilizers and insecticides throughout the Central Asian republics was twenty to twenty-five kilograms per hectare, compared with the former average of three kilograms per hectare for the entire Soviet Union. As a result, the supply of fresh water has received further contaminants. Industrial pollutants also have damaged Uzbekistan's water. In the Amu Darya, concentrations of phenol and oil products have been measured at far above acceptable health standards. In 1989 the Minister of Health of the Turkmen SSR described the Amu Darya as a sewage ditch for industrial and agricultural waste substances. Experts who monitored the river in 1995 reported even further deterioration.

In the early 1990s, about 60% of pollution control funding went to water-related projects, but only about half of cities and about one-quarter of villages have sewers. Communal water systems do not meet health standards; much of the population lacks drinking water systems and must drink water straight from contaminated irrigation ditches, canals, or the Amu Darya itself.

• In the early 1990s, about 60% of pollution control funding went to water-related projects, but only about half of cities and about one-quarter of villages have sewers. Communal water systems do not meet health standards; much of the population lacks drinking water systems and must drink water straight from contaminated irrigation ditches, canals, or the Amu Darya itself.
• According to one report, virtually all the large underground fresh-water supplies in Uzbekistan are polluted by industrial and chemical wastes. An official in Uzbekistan's Ministry of Environment estimated that about half of the country's population lives in regions where the water is severely polluted. The government estimated in 1995 that only 230 of the country's 8,000 industrial enterprises were following pollution control standards.

Air pollution.

• Poor water management and heavy use of agricultural chemicals also have polluted the air. Salt and dust storms and the spraying of pesticides and defoliants for the cotton crop have led to severe degradation of air quality in rural areas.
• In urban areas, factories and auto emissions are a growing threat to air quality. Fewer than half of factory smokestacks in Uzbekistan are equipped with filtration devices, and none has the capacity to filter gaseous emissions. In addition, a high percentage of existing filters are defective or out of operation. Air pollution data for Tashkent, Farghona, and Olmaliq show all three cities exceeding recommended levels of nitrous dioxide and particulates. High levels of heavy metals such as lead, nickel, zinc, copper, mercury, and manganese have been found in Uzbekistan's atmosphere, mainly from the burning of fossil fuels, waste materials, and ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy. Especially high concentrations of heavy metals have been reported in Toshkent Province and in the southern part of Uzbekistan near the Olmaliq Metallurgy Combine. In the mid-1990s, Uzbekistan's industrial production, about 60% of the total for the Central Asian nations excluding Kazakhstan, also yielded about 60% of the total volume of Central Asia's emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere. Because automobiles are relatively scarce, automotive exhaust is a problem only in Tashkent and Farghona.

Land and Soil Pollution.

• The reduction of water in Uzbekistan has resulted in soil degradation, and the spread of the salt from the evaporated Aral Sea has contaminated the surrounding soil. The soil has lost much of its water due to the increased surface irrigation. The irrigation of farmlands with water from the Aral Sea has resulted in increased salinization of the soil, causing the farmland to be less productive and the destruction of a large portion of farmable land.
• The amount of grasslands in Uzbekistan has gradually decreased mainly due to over-grazing and climate change. About 62.6% of the land in Uzbekistan is used for agriculture with 51.7% of that land used for permanent pasture.

The soil has been polluted by mining and smelting activities due to the spread of metals and other pollutants by wind. Smelter ash contaminated soil causes environmental risks such as reduction of soil respiration, contamination of microbial biomass, and negatively effecting trophic interactions. Many species of animals are sensitive to metal pollution and are directly exposed to it by living off of the land that has been polluted by the mining and smelting activities. The metals polluting the land and soil include copper, gold, lead, silver, metallic zinc, and others.[6] An example is the metallurgical complex at Almalik in Uzbekistan that manufactures metals and has waste storage sites in surrounding areas, which pollute the soil, groundwater, and air with high amounts of copper, zinc, arsenic, lead, and cadmium. The mining complexes in Uzbekistan have created toxic waste that has spread through the land, groundwater, air, waterways, and soil.

• The soil has been polluted by mining and smelting activities due to the spread of metals and other pollutants by wind. Smelter ash contaminated soil causes environmental risks such as reduction of soil respiration, contamination of microbial biomass, and negatively effecting trophic interactions. Many species of animals are sensitive to metal pollution and are directly exposed to it by living off of the land that has been polluted by the mining and smelting activities. The metals polluting the land and soil include copper, gold, lead, silver, metallic zinc, and others.[6] An example is the metallurgical complex at Almalik in Uzbekistan that manufactures metals and has waste storage sites in surrounding areas, which pollute the soil, groundwater, and air with high amounts of copper, zinc, arsenic, lead, and cadmium. The mining complexes in Uzbekistan have created toxic waste that has spread through the land, groundwater, air, waterways, and soil.

The soil in Uzbekistan is also polluted by industrial waste. The improper handling and disposal of industrial waste has polluted the land in Uzbekistan and other countries in Central Asia. The evaporation of the Aral Sea exposed Vozrozhdeniya Island, also known as Resurrection Island, to the land and environment in Uzbekistan when the island transformed into a large peninsula. At Resurrection Island, the land and soil was polluted with weaponized and genetically modified pathogens due to a secret biological weapons program carried out by the Soviet military. The island was decontaminated by the Russian military, Government of Uzbekistan, and U.S. experts because of the health and environmental dangers it could have caused with its new connection to the land.

• The soil in Uzbekistan is also polluted by industrial waste. The improper handling and disposal of industrial waste has polluted the land in Uzbekistan and other countries in Central Asia. The evaporation of the Aral Sea exposed Vozrozhdeniya Island, also known as Resurrection Island, to the land and environment in Uzbekistan when the island transformed into a large peninsula. At Resurrection Island, the land and soil was polluted with weaponized and genetically modified pathogens due to a secret biological weapons program carried out by the Soviet military. The island was decontaminated by the Russian military, Government of Uzbekistan, and U.S. experts because of the health and environmental dangers it could have caused with its new connection to the land.

Government environmental policy.

• The government of Uzbekistan has acknowledged the extent of the country's environmental problems, and it has made a commitment to address them in its Biodiversity Action Plan. But the governmental structures to deal with these problems remain confused and ill-defined. Old agencies and organizations have been expanded to address these questions, and new ones have been created, resulting in a bureaucratic web of agencies with no generally understood commitment to attack environmental problems directly. Various nongovernmental and grassroots environmental organizations also have begun to form, some closely tied to the current government and others assuming an opposition stance. For example, environmental issues were prominent points in the original platform of Birlik, the first major opposition movement to emerge in Uzbekistan. By the mid-1990s, such issues had become a key concern of all opposition groups and a cause of growing concern among the population as a whole.

In the first half of the 1990s, many plans were proposed to limit or discourage economic practices that damage the environment. Despite discussion of programs to require payments for resources (especially water) and to collect fines from heavy polluters, however, little has been accomplished. The obstacles are a lack of law enforcement in these areas, inconsistent government economic and environmental planning, corruption, and the overwhelming concentration of power in the hands of a president who shows little tolerance of grassroots activity.

• In the first half of the 1990s, many plans were proposed to limit or discourage economic practices that damage the environment. Despite discussion of programs to require payments for resources (especially water) and to collect fines from heavy polluters, however, little has been accomplished. The obstacles are a lack of law enforcement in these areas, inconsistent government economic and environmental planning, corruption, and the overwhelming concentration of power in the hands of a president who shows little tolerance of grassroots activity.
• International donors and Western assistance agencies have devised programs to transfer technology and know-how to address these problems. But the country's environmental problems are predominantly the result of abuse and mismanagement of natural resources promoted by political and economic priorities. Until the political will emerges to regard environmental and health problems as a threat not only to the government in power but also to the very survival of Uzbekistan, the increasingly grave environmental threat will not be addressed effectively.

The Government of Uzbekistan joined forces with Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan in 1992 to form the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS) and in 1993 to form the Interstate Council on the Problems of the Aral Sea Basin (ICAS). The ICAS was formed to work with the World Bank in order to improve the conditions of the Aral Sea, but was disbanded in 1997 to form IFAS.

• The Government of Uzbekistan joined forces with Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan in 1992 to form the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS) and in 1993 to form the Interstate Council on the Problems of the Aral Sea Basin (ICAS). The ICAS was formed to work with the World Bank in order to improve the conditions of the Aral Sea, but was disbanded in 1997 to form IFAS.
• The Uzbekistan government along with NGOs and U.S. international donors has been working to help improve the health conditions in Uzbekistan since the 1990s. This has led to improvements in drinking water. The World Bank and United Nations have also been involved in preparing possible solutions for the environmental problems in Uzbekistan.

The World Bank worked with the countries in the Aral Sea Basin to form the Aral Sea Basin Assistance Program (ASBP) in the early 1990s. The main roles of the ASBP were the rehabilitation of the Aral Sea area that was destroyed through evaporation, the planning and management of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, and the construction of institutions to plan and implement the rehabilitation and management of the water resources surrounding the Aral Sea. The World Bank also formed the Water and Environmental Management Project in 1998 that was funded by both the World Bank and the Global Environmental Facility (GEF). The program was funded by the World Bank, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Asian Development Bank, as well as the governments of a few countries. Other groups that contributed to the rehabilitation and management of the Aral Sea include the European Union, the United Nations, UNESCO, United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the Science for Peace program.

• The World Bank worked with the countries in the Aral Sea Basin to form the Aral Sea Basin Assistance Program (ASBP) in the early 1990s. The main roles of the ASBP were the rehabilitation of the Aral Sea area that was destroyed through evaporation, the planning and management of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, and the construction of institutions to plan and implement the rehabilitation and management of the water resources surrounding the Aral Sea. The World Bank also formed the Water and Environmental Management Project in 1998 that was funded by both the World Bank and the Global Environmental Facility (GEF). The program was funded by the World Bank, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Asian Development Bank, as well as the governments of a few countries. Other groups that contributed to the rehabilitation and management of the Aral Sea include the European Union, the United Nations, UNESCO, United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the Science for Peace program.

TOPOGRAPHY.

• Uzbekistan consists of mostly flat to rolling sandy desert with dunes. The Fergana Valley lies in the east surrounded by the Tian Shan mountains of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. The Alai mountains lie to the extreme southeast. The highest point in the country is Adelunga Toghi, at an elevation of 4,301 meters (14,111 feet). The lowest point is Sariqarnish Kuli, which dips to 12 meters (39 feet) below sea level. The country is located in a seismically active region along the Eurasian Tectonic Plate, resulting in frequent earthquakes.

The Kyzyl Kum desert covers most of the interior of the country. With an area of about 297,850 square kilometers (115,000 square miles), it is the largest desert region in Central Asia and the ninth-largest in the world. In the northwest, the Aral Sea is shared with Kazakhstan. Covering area of about 64,500 square kilometers (24,900 square miles), it is the largest lake in the country and the fourth-largest lake in the world. The longest river in the country is the Amu Dar'ya, which has a total length of 2,540 kilometers (1,580 miles), only a portion of which runs through Uzbekistan.

• The Kyzyl Kum desert covers most of the interior of the country. With an area of about 297,850 square kilometers (115,000 square miles), it is the largest desert region in Central Asia and the ninth-largest in the world. In the northwest, the Aral Sea is shared with Kazakhstan. Covering area of about 64,500 square kilometers (24,900 square miles), it is the largest lake in the country and the fourth-largest lake in the world. The longest river in the country is the Amu Dar'ya, which has a total length of 2,540 kilometers (1,580 miles), only a portion of which runs through Uzbekistan.

CLIMATE.

• The climate is mid-latitude climatic desert. Temperatures range from 26° to 32°c (79° to 90°f) in the summer, with much higher figures in the desert. Average winter temperatures are between -6° and 2°c (21° to 36°f). There is very little rainfall in the country. The best watered areas only receive about 30 cm (12 in) annually.

FLORA AND FAUNA.

• Ecological damage has left much of the country devoid of animal life. Bird species include a variety of warblers, eagles, owls, buzzards, heron, ducks, and larks. Mammals include wolves, elk, hedgehogs, squirrels, and weasels. Leopards and wildcats can be found in some forested areas. As of 2002, there were at least 97 species of mammals, 203 species of birds, and over 4,800 species of plants throughout the country.

The flora of Uzbekistan has more than 3700 species of plants. 20% of the species are endemic (more no where to meet); a large part of their grows in the mountains. Flora of steppes and deserts consists of unique bushes. On the low plains developed tree, shrub, and herbaceous vegetation. Tugai forests are characterized by thickets of cane and Candiria.

• The flora of Uzbekistan has more than 3700 species of plants. 20% of the species are endemic (more no where to meet); a large part of their grows in the mountains. Flora of steppes and deserts consists of unique bushes. On the low plains developed tree, shrub, and herbaceous vegetation. Tugai forests are characterized by thickets of cane and Candiria.
• In the landscape of the upland plains-grass, trees, shrubs are found on water streams. Here grow different types of onions, Tulips, rhubarb, irises. The high foothills are dry motley grass steppe on dark serozems. On rocky areas grow shrubs-almonds, curchava, cherry.
• In the low mountains — mostly growing valuable wood species — Zaravshan juniper. Also common hardwood - maple, hawthorn, different forms of wild Apple, pistachio, walnut, birch, willow, poplar, cherry magalebka. The low is very rich in shrubs: honeysuckle, barberry, rose hips, tavolga, thickets of wild vineyard. Very diverse set of herbs: Clary sage, zizifora, rhubarb, sorrel, Tulip, Pskov onion (valuable medicinal plant). In the middle mountains grows wild rose and other shrubs. In the highlands only 30% of the soil is covered with vegetation. Here grows mainly tipchak.
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As well as plant and animal life of Uzbekistan is diverse. Here you can meet many representatives of Asian fauna. Among them are: mammals (wolf, big-eared hedgehog, a Fox, a corsac, a hare-tolai, turtle, Gazelle, antelope, wild boar, markhor, mountain sheep, badger, stone marten, bear, snow leopard, ermine, Siberian mountain goat, prestigiosa rat, Jackal and Bukhara deer, Bokhara horseshoe bat, eared bat gopher, jerboa), reptiles (geckos, Agama, sand boa, arrow-snake, Central Asian Cobra, Copperhead snake, get snake, Alay), birds (Houbara bustard, avdotka, Sandgrouse, saja, Dun Nightjar steppe Buzzard, Jay, sorokoput, Warbler, Finch, oatmeal, lentils, big turtle, black vulture, Griffon vulture, vulture, Himalayan snowcock, lammergeier, lesser, jackdaw, pheasant, cuckoo, yellow Wagtail, magpie, black crow, southern Nightingale, bearded tit, reed Bunting, great reed Warbler), insects and etc.

• As well as plant and animal life of Uzbekistan is diverse. Here you can meet many representatives of Asian fauna. Among them are: mammals (wolf, big-eared hedgehog, a Fox, a corsac, a hare-tolai, turtle, Gazelle, antelope, wild boar, markhor, mountain sheep, badger, stone marten, bear, snow leopard, ermine, Siberian mountain goat, prestigiosa rat, Jackal and Bukhara deer, Bokhara horseshoe bat, eared bat gopher, jerboa), reptiles (geckos, Agama, sand boa, arrow-snake, Central Asian Cobra, Copperhead snake, get snake, Alay), birds (Houbara bustard, avdotka, Sandgrouse, saja, Dun Nightjar steppe Buzzard, Jay, sorokoput, Warbler, Finch, oatmeal, lentils, big turtle, black vulture, Griffon vulture, vulture, Himalayan snowcock, lammergeier, lesser, jackdaw, pheasant, cuckoo, yellow Wagtail, magpie, black crow, southern Nightingale, bearded tit, reed Bunting, great reed Warbler), insects and etc.

ENVIRONMENT.

• Uzbekistan's main environmental problems are soil salinity, land pollution, and water pollution. In 1992, Uzbekistan had the world's 27th highest level of carbon dioxide emissions, which totaled 123.5 million metric tons, a per capita level of 5.75 metric tons. In 2000, the total of carbon dioxide emissions was at 118.6 million metric tons. Chemicals used in farming, such as DDT, contribute to the pollution of the soil. Desertification is a continuing concern.
• The nation's forestlands have also been threatened. Between 1990–1995, deforestation occurred at an annual average rate of 2.65%. However, reforestation efforts have begun as of the late 1990s.

The country's water supply also suffers from toxic chemical pollutants from industrial activity as well as fertilizers and pesticides. Uzbekistan has 16 cu km of renewable water resources, with 94% of annual withdrawals used for farming and 2% used for industrial purposes. The nation's cities produce an average of 45.8 million tons of solid waste per year.

• The country's water supply also suffers from toxic chemical pollutants from industrial activity as well as fertilizers and pesticides. Uzbekistan has 16 cu km of renewable water resources, with 94% of annual withdrawals used for farming and 2% used for industrial purposes. The nation's cities produce an average of 45.8 million tons of solid waste per year.
• The draining and evaporation of the Aral Sea has been considered one of the worst ecological disasters in the world. Irrigation withdrawals from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers have been a major cause of lake shrinkage. As a result, pesticides and natural salts in its water have become increasingly concentrated so that plant and wildlife habitats have been destroyed. As of 2002, the area of the Aral Sa was reported to cover less than half the size of the original basin.

As of 2003, only 2% of Uzbekistan's total land area is protected. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 7 types of mammals, 16 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 4 species of fish, 1 species of invertebrate, and 1 species of plant. Threatened or rare species include the markhor, Central Asia cobra, Aral salmon, slender-billed curlew, and Asiatic wild dog. The Jeseter hladky has become extinct.

• As of 2003, only 2% of Uzbekistan's total land area is protected. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 7 types of mammals, 16 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 4 species of fish, 1 species of invertebrate, and 1 species of plant. Threatened or rare species include the markhor, Central Asia cobra, Aral salmon, slender-billed curlew, and Asiatic wild dog. The Jeseter hladky has become extinct.

POPULATION.

• The population of Uzbekistan in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 26,444,000, which placed it at number 43 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 5% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 35% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 99 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.6%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 33,851,000. The overall population density was 59 per sq km (153 per sq mi), with the population being densest in the Fergana Valley.
• The UN estimated that 37% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.38%. The capital city, Tashkent (Toshkent), had a population of 2,155,000 in that year. Samarqand (Samarkand) had a population of about 374,900.

ETHNIC GROUPS.

• According to the last official estimates (1996), about 80% of the population was Uzbek. Russians constituted 5.5%, Tajiks made up 5%, Kazakhs accounted for 3%, Karakalpaks for 2.5%, Tatars 1.5%, and others 2.5%. There are also small numbers of ethnic Koreans, Meskhetian Turks, Germans, and Greeks.

LANGUAGES.

• Uzbek, the state language, was the most widely spoken non-Slavic tongue in the USSR. It is a Turkic language with six vowels—virtually identical to those of Tajik, which has surely influenced it—rather than the original eight or nine. In 1993, it was decided that the language would be written in the Roman (Latin) alphabet rather than in the Cyrillic alphabet. Uzbek is spoken by about 74.3% of the population in Uzbekistan; Russian is spoken by 14.2%, Tajik by 4.4%, and other various languages by 7.1%.

RELIGIONS.

• Ethnic Uzbeks are primarily adherents of the Hanafi sect of Sunni Islam, but the Wahhabi sect has flourished as well in recent years. Muslims account for about 88% of the population; Eastern Orthodox Christians account for about 9%; and others for 3%. In 2002 Uzbekistan had a significant Jewish population of about 20,000 Ashkenazi and Bukharan Jews, primarily in the cities of Tashkent, Bukhoro (Bukhara), and Samarqand (Samarkand). Almost 80,000 Jews have emigrated to Israel or the United States since independence. Minority religions listed as "other" include small communities of Korean Christians, Baptists, Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Seventh-Day Adventists, Evangelical and Pentecostal Christians, Buddhists, Baha'is, and Hare Krishnas.
• Freedom of religion is guaranteed under the constitution of 1992 and there is a specific provision prohibiting the establishment of any state religion. However, the government has placed some restrictions on religious freedom. Proselytizing is prohibited by law. All religious groups must register with the government, but the government has placed strict criteria on the registration process and rejects applications on minor technicalities. For instance, a group must have a valid legal address in order to register, yet many smaller groups do not have such an office. Religious services conducted by unregistered groups are considered to be illegal. All religious literature is subject to censor by the government.

TRANSPORTATION.

• As of 2004, Uzbekistan had some 3,950 km (2,453 mi) of railroad track in common carrier service (not including industrial lines), all of it broad gauge. Separate lines serve eastern and western regions. In 2002, there were also 81,600 km (50,706 mi) of highways, of which 71,237 km (44,227 mi) are hard-surfaced. As a doubly landlocked nation, there is no direct connection to the open sea. The closest route to the sea is to the south through Termiz on the Afghanistan border. Conflict in Afghanistan blocks this route. The Zeravshan River is the largest inland waterway. In 2004, the country had 1,100 km (684 mi) of navigable inland waterways. Uzbekistan had an estimated 226 airports in 2004, of which 33 had paved runways as of 2005. In 2003, a total of 1.466 million passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.
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Questions to be discussed:

• Where is Uzbekistan located?
• What territory does Uzbekistan occupy?
• What is the climate of Uzbekistan?
• Speak about rivers, mountains and desert plains of Uzbekistan?
• What is the total area of Uzbekistan?
• What do you know about population of Uzbekistan?
• What are the largest cities of Uzbekistan?
• What do you know water resources of Uzbekistan?
• What are the environmental problems in Uzbekistan?
• Speak on flora and fauna of Uzbekistan?

Main literatures:

• 1. Қ.Усмонов, М.Содиқов, С.Бурхонова. Ўзбекистон тарихи. Тошкент. 2005
• 2. А.Муҳаммаджонов. Темур ва Темурийлар даври. Тошкент. 1996
• 3. Ҳ.Зиёев. Ўзбекистон мустақиллиги учун курашларнинг тарихи. Тошкент. 2001
• 4. И.Жабборов. Ўзбеклар турмуш тарзи ва маданияти. Тошкент. 2003
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• Additional literatures
• 1. Мирзиёев Ш.М. Эркин ва фаровон демократик Ўзбекистон давлатини биргаликда барпо этамиз. Тошкент, “Ўзбекистон” НМИУ, 2017. – 29 б.
• 2. Мирзиёев Ш.М. Қонун устуворлиги ва инсон манфаатларини таъминлаш юрт тараққиёти ва халқ фаровонлигининг гарови. “Ўзбекистон” НМИУ, 2017. 47 б.
• 3. Мирзиёев Ш.М. Буюк келажагимизни мард ва олижаноб халқимиз билан бирга қурамиз. “Ўзбекистон” НМИУ, 2017. – 485 б.
• 4. Буюк сиймолар. Алломалар (уч китоб). Т.Мерос. 1995. 1996. 1998
• 5. Ўзбекистон совет мустамлакачилиги даврида. Ўзбекистоннинг янги тарихи. Т.Шарқ. 2000
• 6. Р.Шарипов Х.Бобоев. Туркистон жадидчилик ҳаракати тарихидан. Т.Ўқитувчи. 2002
• 7. У.Абдуллаев. Ўрта Осиёда қадимги бошқарув ва илк давлатчилик тарихшунослиги. Т.2009
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• Internet resources
• 1. http://e-tarix.uz/
• 2. https://kitobxon.com/uz/kitob/ozbekiston_tarihi-1
• 3. http://akadmvd.uz/wp-content/uploads/2003-hasanov-ozb-tar-II-uz.pdf
• 4. https://ziyouz.uz/durdona-toplamlar/ozbekistonning-yangi-tarixi/
• 5. https://uz24.uz/reviews/top-10:-gzbekiston-tarihidan-sgzlovchi-muzeylar
• 6. https://ziyouz.uz/ilm-va-fan/tarix/sarkarda/temur/