The shadow economy

Micro-study of Germany.
Germaniya mikrotadqiqi.

The shadow labour market in Germany has been investigated by Haigner et al. (2011). They use data from a representative survey of 2,104 German residents conducted in May 2010. The usual caveats about survey data of the shadow economy apply. In order to encourage more honest answers, however, the interviewees were read the following text (translated from German):

Germaniyada yashirin mehnat bozori Xaigner va boshqalar tomonidan o'rganilgan. (2011). Ular 2010 yil may oyida o'tkazilgan 2104 nafar nemis aholisining vakillik so'rovi ma'lumotlaridan foydalanadilar. Odatdagi ogohlantirishlar yashirin iqtisodiyot so'rovi ma'lumotlariga nisbatan qo'llaniladi. Biroq, samimiy javoblarni rag'batlantirish uchun suhbatdoshlarga quyidagi matn (nemis tilidan tarjima qilingan) o'qildi:
The next set of questions deals with what is called shadow work. We survey these questions on behalf of a group of independent scientists, who will process the results within a study. By black work they mean the following: somebody who works for somebody and agrees not to pay taxes for the payment. In this case, both partners are better off because no value added tax, income tax or social security contributions are paid. Such procedures are frequently occurring, for example, in cleaning, gardening, baby-sitting, waiting at table, writing or programming. Also, work which is not taxed is prevalent in construction, renovation, car repair and taking care of elderly people.
Keyingi savollar to'plami soya ishi deb ataladigan narsaga tegishli. Biz ushbu savollarni tadqiqotning bir qismi sifatida natijalarni qayta ishlovchi mustaqil olimlar guruhi nomidan tekshirmoqdamiz. Qo'l mehnati deganda: kimdir birov uchun ishlaydi va buning uchun soliq to'lamaslikka rozi bo'ladi. Bunday holda, ikkala hamkor ham qo'shilgan qiymat solig'i, daromad solig'i yoki ijtimoiy sug'urta badallari to'lanmaganligi sababli yaxshiroq holatda. Bunday tartiblar ko'pincha, masalan, tozalash, bog'dorchilik, chaqaloqqa qarash, stolda xizmat qilish, yozish yoki dasturlashda uchraydi. Bundan tashqari, qurilish, ta'mirlash, avtoulovlarni ta'mirlash va qariyalarga g'amxo'rlik qilishda soliqqa tortilmaydigan ishlar ustunlik qiladi.
Moreover, if interviewers recognized that the interviewees hesitated to answer the questions on shadow labour supply and demand, they would again explain that the interview was confidential and that answers were confidential, anonymous and only for scientific use. The question on shadow labour supply was (translated from German): ‘Have you, during the last year, worked for somebody in the way described above (black work)?’ Questions were also asked of those potentially using workers from the shadow economy. The question on shadow labour demand was (again translated from German): ‘Have you, during the last year, demanded black work?’ Moreover, the researchers asked shadow labour suppliers the reasons for working in the shadow economy; the time when they undertook such work (working time, weekends, vacations, and so on); the sector in which they worked; the number of hours they worked per month; and the estimated hourly wage they received.
Bundan tashqari, agar intervyu oluvchilar respondentlarning er osti mehnatiga talab va taklifga oid savollarga ikkilanayotganliklarini tan olishsa, ular yana intervyu maxfiy ekanligini va javoblar maxfiy, anonim va faqat ilmiy maqsadlarda ekanligini tushuntirdilar. Er osti mehnatini etkazib berish haqidagi savol (nemis tilidan tarjimasi): "Siz o'tgan yil davomida kimgadir yuqoridagi usulda (qora ish) ishladingizmi?" Yashirin iqtisodiyotdan ishchilarni ishga joylashtirish mumkin bo‘lgan shaxslarga ham savollar berildi. Er osti mehnatiga bo'lgan talab haqidagi savol (yana nemis tilidan tarjima qilingan): "O'tgan yil davomida siz qora ishlarni talab qildingizmi?" Bundan tashqari, tadqiqotchilar yer osti mehnat ta'minotchilaridan yashirin iqtisodiyotda ishlashning sabablari haqida so'rashdi; bunday ishlarni bajarish vaqti (ish vaqti, dam olish kunlari, ta'tillar va boshqalar); ular ishlagan soha; oyiga ishlagan soatlar soni; va ular olgan hisoblangan soatlik ish haqi.

In order to understand the general attitudes towards shadow labour supply and demand, survey respondents were asked to declare their views in accordance with a set of thirteen statements on the topic. The results were interesting. There was considerable awareness of the fact that shadow labour reduces the tax revenues of the state. People also claimed, however, that high tax rates made working in the shadow economy more attractive. Interestingly, many people suggested that they liked shadow labour because it was more rapidly available and more flexible than official labour, which was widely perceived to be subject to strict regulations. Moreover, people in general did not agree with the statement that shadow labour suppliers should be reported to the police, nor would many people have reported them to the police themselves. This shows that shadow labour in Germany is perceived as a rather trivial offence. The strongest positive answers were to the proposition that labour faces regulations that are too strict and that shadow labour was cheaper than formal labour.

Er osti mehnatiga talab va taklifga umumiy munosabatni tushunish uchun so'rov ishtirokchilaridan mavzu bo'yicha o'n uchta bayonot to'plamiga muvofiq o'z fikrlarini bildirishlari so'ralgan. Natijalar qiziqarli bo'ldi. Yashirin mehnat davlatning soliq tushumlarini kamaytirayotgani haqida keng ma'lumot bor edi. Biroq, odamlar yuqori soliq stavkalari yashirin iqtisodiyotda ishlashni yanada jozibador qilishini ta'kidladilar. Qizig'i shundaki, ko'pchilik o'zlariga soya mehnatini yoqtirishlarini taklif qilishgan, chunki u rasmiy mehnatga qaraganda ancha arzon va moslashuvchan edi, ko'pchilik buni qat'iy qoidalarga bo'ysunadi. Bundan tashqari, odamlar, odatda, soya ishchilarini etkazib beruvchilar politsiyaga xabar berishlari kerakligi haqidagi bayonotga qo'shilmadilar va ko'pchilik o'zlari politsiyaga xabar bermaydilar. Bu shuni ko'rsatadiki, Germaniyada er osti ishlari juda ahamiyatsiz jinoyat sifatida qabul qilinadi. Eng kuchli ijobiy javoblar mehnat qoidalari o'ta qattiq va er osti mehnati rasmiy mehnatga qaraganda arzonroq degan da'voga bo'lgan.

Out of 2,104 respondents, 285 (14 per cent) declared that they were supplying shadow labour during the year before the survey. Among men, the fraction of shadow labour suppliers was significantly higher (19 per cent) than among women (9 per cent). Moreover, the authors found above-average proportions supplying shadow labour among the unemployed (30 per cent) and among people out of the labour force ‘owing to other reasons’ (24 per cent). Among pensioners (5 per cent) and homemakers (10 per cent) the proportion is below average, while it is close to average among students (14 per cent), apprentices (12 per cent), self-employed persons (15 per cent) and dependent employees (16 per cent). Among persons who have not completed compulsory education and those who have completed an apprenticeship, shadow labour suppliers are over-represented (24 per cent and 20 per cent respectively), while they are under-represented among persons with a university degree (7 per cent).

2104 respondentdan 285 nafari (14%) soʻrovdan oldingi yil davomida yashirin mehnat bilan taʼminlaganliklarini aytdi. Erkaklar o'rtasida yashirin mehnat etkazib beruvchilarning ulushi ayollarga (9%) nisbatan sezilarli darajada yuqori (19%) edi. Bundan tashqari, mualliflar ishsizlar (30%) va "boshqa sabablarga ko'ra" ketganlar (24%) orasida yashirin mehnat taklifining o'rtacha ulushidan yuqori ekanligini aniqladilar. Pensionerlar (5%) va uy bekalari (10%) orasida bu ko'rsatkich o'rtacha ko'rsatkichdan past, talabalar (14%), shogirdlar (12%), yakka tartibdagi tadbirkorlar (15%) o'rtacha ko'rsatkichga yaqin. va qaramog'idagi ishchilar (16%). Majburiy ta'limni tugatmaganlar va shogirdlikni tamomlaganlar orasida yashirin mehnat ta'minlovchilar ustunlik qiladi (mos ravishda 24% va 20%), oliy ma'lumotlilar orasida esa ular kam (7%). ).