The Invisible Constitution in Comparative Perspective



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The Invisible Constitution in Comparative Perspective by Rosalind Dixon (editor), Adrienne Stone (editor) (z-lib.org)

Director of Immigration.

37

 The CFA was established in 1997 to replace the 



Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the final appellate court in Hong 

Kong. It enjoys the power of final adjudication, so that cases litigated in Hong 

Kong cannot be appealed to Beijing. Although the interpretation adopted by 

the CFA of art. 22(4) of the HKBL (on the migration to Hong Kong of main-

land residents) in Ng Ka Ling has subsequently been superseded by an inter-

pretation of the HKBL issued by the NPCSC in June 1999, the Ng case is still 

authoritative on the constitutional review power of Hong Kong courts with 

regard to local legislation:

38

The Region is vested with independent judicial power, including that of final 



adjudication. Article 19(1) [Basic Law]. The courts of the Region at all lev-

els shall be the judiciary of the Region exercising the judicial power of the 

Region. Article 80.

In exercising their judicial power conferred by the Basic Law, the courts of 

the Region have a duty to enforce and interpret that Law. They undoubtedly 

have the jurisdiction to examine whether legislation enacted by the legis-

lature of the Region or acts of the executive authorities of the Region are 

consistent with the Basic Law and, if found to be inconsistent, to hold them 

to be invalid. The exercise of this jurisdiction is a matter of obligation, not of 

discretion so that if inconsistency is established, the courts are bound to hold 

that a law or executive act is invalid at least to the extent of the inconsistency. 

Although this has not been questioned, it is right that we should take this 

opportunity of stating it unequivocally. In exercising this jurisdiction, the 

courts perform their constitutional role under the Basic Law of acting as 

a constitutional check on the executive and legislative branches of govern-

ment to ensure that they act in accordance with the Basic Law.

39

The subsequent CFA decisions in HKSAR v. Ng Kung Siu



40

 and Leung Kwok 



Hung v. HKSAR

41

 provide illustrations of constitutional judicial review of 



36 

5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803).

37 

(1999) 2 HKCFAR 4.



38 

See generally Johannes Chan et al. (eds.), Hong Kong’s Constitutional Debate: Conflict over 



Interpretation (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2000).

39 


Paragraphs 60–1 of the judgment.

40 


Note 29.

41 


Note 30.


244 

Albert H. Y. Chen and P. Y. Lo

Hong Kong laws restricting human rights on the basis of proportionality ana-

lysis. The two cases concerned freedom of expression and freedom of assem-

bly respectively. Whereas the impugned flag desecration law was upheld as a 

proportionate restriction on freedom of expression for the protection of ordre 

public in Ng Kung Siu, one provision in the existing Public Order Ordinance 

was struck down in Leung Kwok Hung. In the latter case, the CFA reiter-

ated the proportionality test for the constitutional review of laws restricting 

constitutional rights (other than absolute rights such as the right not to be 

tortured), which involves a three-stage analysis: (1) Is the statutory restriction 

of the relevant right for the purpose of achieving a legitimate aim? (2) Is the 

restriction ‘rationally connected with one or more of the legitimate purposes’? 

(3) Is the restriction ‘no more than is necessary to accomplish the legitimate 

purpose in question’ (or is the restriction so designed as to involve minimum 

impairment of the relevant right)? In the 2016 case of Hysan Development

the CFA, following English and European jurisprudence, added a fourth step 

(proportionality stricto sensu) to the test, which is to consider whether a ‘rea-

sonable balance’ has been struck between the interests of the individual or 

group concerned and the ‘societal benefits’ flowing from the restriction on the 

relevant constitutional right of the individual or group, ‘asking in particular 

whether pursuit of the societal interest results in an unacceptably harsh bur-

den on the individual’.

42

The proportionality test has been applied by the Hong Kong courts not 



only to human rights guaranteed by the ICCPR and the Hong Kong Bill of 

Rights, but also to other rights guaranteed by the HKBL, such as the right 

to travel,

43

 and even to adjudicate on the constitutionality of a restriction on 



appeals from a lower court to the CFA.

44

 In the context of the right to equality 



and non-discrimination, proportionality analysis has been undertaken under 

the ‘justification test’, which is structurally similar to the proportionality test. 

In considering a constitutional challenge on the basis of equality and non- 

discrimination on the ground of sexual orientation, the CFA decided in Secretary 




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