Managing Disruptive
Technological Change:
A Case Study
As we approach the end of this book, we should better understand why great companies can stumble.
Incompetence, bureaucracy, arrogance, tired executive blood, poor planning, and short-term investment
horizons obviously have played leading roles in toppling many companies. But we have learned here
that even the best managers are subject to certain laws that make disruptive innovation difficult. It is
when great managers haven’t understood or have attempted to fight these forces that their companies
have stumbled.
This chapter uses the forces and principles described in earlier chapters to illustrate how managers can
succeed when faced with disruptive technology change. To do so, I employ a case study format, using a
personal voice, to suggest how I, as a hypothetical employee of a major automaker, might manage a
program to develop and commercialize one of the most vexing innovations of our day: the electric
vehicle. My purpose here is explicitly not to offer any so-called right answer to this particular
challenge, nor to predict whether or how electric vehicles may become commercially successful.
Rather, it is to suggest in a familiar but challenging context how managers might structure their
thinking about a similar problem by proposing a sequence of questions that, if asked, can lead to a
sound and useful answer.
HOW CAN WE KNOW IF A TECHNOLOGY IS DISRUPTIVE?
Electric-powered vehicles have hovered at the fringe of legitimacy since the early 1900s, when they
lost the contest for the dominant vehicle design to gasoline power. Research on these vehicles
accelerated during the 1970s, however, as policy makers increasingly looked to them as a way to
reduce urban air pollution. The California Air Resources Board (CARB) forced an unprecedented
infusion of resources into the effort in the early 1990s when it mandated that, starting in 1998, no
automobile manufacturer would be allowed to sell any cars in California if electric vehicles did not
constitute at least 2 percent of its unit sales in the state.
1
In my hypothetical responsibility for managing an automaker’s program, my first step would be to ask
a series of questions: How much do we need to worry about electric cars? That is, aside from
California’s mandate, does the electric car pose a legitimate disruptive threat to companies making
gasoline-powered automobiles? Does it constitute an opportunity for profitable growth?
To answer these questions, I would graph the trajectories of performance improvement demanded in
the market versus the performance improvement supplied by the technology; in other words, I would
create for electric vehicles a trajectory map similar to those in Figures 1.7 or 9.5. Such charts are the
best method I know for identifying disruptive technologies.
160
The first step in making this chart involves defining current mainstream market needs and comparing
them with the current capacity of electric vehicles. To measure market needs, I would watch carefully
what customers do, not simply listen to what they say. Watching how customers actually use a product
provides much more reliable information than can be gleaned from a verbal interview or a focus
group.
2
Thus, observations indicate that auto users today require a minimum cruising range (that is, the
distance that can be driven without refueling) of about 125 to 150 miles; most electric vehicles only
offer a minimum cruising range of 50 to 80 miles. Similarly, drivers seem to require cars that accelerate
from 0 to 60 miles per hour in less than 10 seconds (necessary primarily to merge safely into high-
speed traffic from freeway entrance ramps); most electric vehicles take nearly 20 seconds to get there.
And, finally, buyers in the mainstream market demand a wide array of options, but it would be
impossible for electric vehicle manufacturers to offer a similar variety within the small initial unit
volumes that will characterize that business.
3
According to almost any definition of functionality used
for the vertical axis of our proposed chart, the electric vehicle will be deficient compared to a gasoline-
powered car.
This information is not sufficient to characterize electric vehicles as disruptive, however. They will
only be disruptive if we find that they are also on a trajectory of improvement that might someday
make them competitive in parts of the mainstream market. To assess this possibility, we need to project
trajectories measuring the performance improvement demanded in the market versus the performance
improvement that electric vehicle technology may provide. If these trajectories are parallel, then
electric vehicles are unlikely to become factors in the mainstream market; but if the technology will
progress faster than the pace of improvement demanded in the market, then the threat of disruption is
real.
Figure 10.1 shows that the trajectories of performance improvement demanded in the market—whether
measured in terms of required acceleration, cruising range, or top cruising speed—are relatively flat.
This is because traffic laws impose a limit on the usefulness of ever-more-powerful cars, and
demographic, economic, and geographic considerations limit the increase in commuting miles for the
average driver to less than 1 percent per year.
4
At the same time, the performance of electric vehicles is
improving at a faster rate—between 2 and 4 percent per year—suggesting that sustaining technological
advances might indeed carry electric vehicles from their position today, where they cannot compete in
mainstream markets, to a position in the future where they might.
5
In other words, as an automotive company executive, I would worry about the electric vehicle, not just
because it is politically correct to be investing in environmentally friendly technologies, but because
electric vehicles have the smell of a disruptive technology. They can’t be used in mainstream markets;
they offer a set of attributes that is orthogonal to those that command attention in the gasoline-powered
value network; and the technology is moving ahead at a faster rate than the market’s trajectory of need.
Because electric vehicles are not sustaining innovations, however, mainstream automakers naturally
doubt that there is a market for them—another symptom of a disruptive innovation. Consider this
statement by the director of Ford’s electric vehicle program: “The electric Ranger will sell at
approximately $30,000 and have a lead-acid battery that will give it a range of 50 miles . . . . The 1998
electric vehicle will be a difficult sell. The products that will be available will not meet customer
expectations in terms of range, cost or utility.”
6
Indeed, given their present performance along these
parameters, it will be about as easy to sell electric vehicles into the mainstream car market as it was to
sell 5.25-inch disk drives to mainframe computer makers in 1980.
161
Figure 10.1 The Electric Car
Source: Data are from Dr. Paul J. Miller, Senior Energy Fellow, W. Alton Jones Foundation and from
numerous articles about electric vehicles.
In evaluating these trajectories, I would be careful to keep asking the right question: Will the trajectory
of electric vehicle performance ever intersect the trajectory of market demands (as revealed in the way
customers use cars)? Industry experts may contend that electric vehicles will never perform as well as
gasoline-powered cars, in effect comparing the trajectories of the two technologies. They are probably
correct. But, recalling the experience of their counterparts in the disk drive industry, they will have the
right answer to the wrong question. I also would note, but not be deterred by, the mountain of expert
opinion averring that without a major technological breakthrough in battery technology, there will
never be a substantial market for electric vehicles. The reason? If electric vehicles are viewed as a
sustaining technology for established market value networks, they are clearly right. But because the
track records of experts predicting the nature and size of markets for disruptive technologies is very
poor, I would be particularly skeptical of the experts’ skepticism, even as I remain uncertain about my
own conclusions.
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |