The history of the development of chemistry

The history of the development of chemistry.

plan:
1. The subject of chemistry.
2. Its place among natural and humanitarian sciences.
3. Level of chemical knowledge.
4. About the stages of solving the main problem of chemistry.
6. The integral connection of chemistry with other natural sciences
directions of modern chemistry

Since ancient times, people have been in constant contact with the surrounding nature, creating the necessary materials and products for themselves under the influence of chemical means. For example: metal smelting, glass and ceramics, paint preparation for gauze, leather tanning, baking, etc. From this point of view, we are convinced that chemistry is the oldest field of human activity. It was not yet a science, but a field of activity. It took thousands of years for chemistry to become the science we now imagine. The scope of chemical knowledge is very wide. Chemistry is one of the natural sciences that examines the whole world around us, its various forms and various phenomena that occur in the world. Nature, the whole universe, exists outside of human consciousness and independent of human consciousness. The universe is made of matter, and all things that exist are different types of matter that are always moving. Deep knowledge of matter and its use for human welfare is the main problem of chemistry today.

Chemistry examines the substances that make up animate and inanimate nature, their properties, structure, interactions, the changes that occur as a result of these, and the connections between these changes. The entire universe, animate and inanimate world, all the processes that take place in the universe are constantly changing and developing.
They say "History is the teacher of life." Based on this idea, Ostwald actually put forward the idea that the general laws of human development can be created as a result of studying the history of sciences and generalizing them. So, in the history of science, you can see the way of human development. In the study of history, the question of how and when society began and when it will end arises.
In 1970, the Japanese company "Omron" SINIG (sret - grain, Innovation - innovation, need - need, impetus - run, cycle - cycle. From "Innovation - towards the need"), creating the theory, it showed that the development of society, in turn, requires a systematic study of the research base of each science, its history, and specific technology. This theory is not only one of the sciences that explain the secrets of nature, but also directly applies to chemistry, which is considered the main productive force in life.
Indeed , chemistry occupies one of the main places among sciences in society. Chemistry is not only a tool that sustains our life, but also serves as the main weapon in solving everyday problems. Taking this into account, academician VAKoptyug said at the 35th General Assembly of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry that "it is necessary to explain to the general public the great influence of chemistry on other sciences and progress in society." Chemistry studies the elements that make up the world, the various simple and complex substances formed from these elements, and the complex laws of their transformation into each other.
Chemistry explains the nature of phenomena observed in everyday life and experiments carried out.
The development of chemistry is inextricably linked with other natural sciences:
1. If we look at the relationship between chemistry and mathematics: first, the atomic mass was determined, by 1850, the rate of chemical reactions was expressed mathematically, then: differential, integral, mathematical statistics, computational mathematics, EHM, modeling, graphical representation of chemical reactions and we will see its application to chemistry.
2. For physicists, chemistry is considered as an object: the structure of substances, their ability to undergo chemical reactions (physical chemistry) are studied using physical methods (NMR, PMR, spectroscopy, etc.).
3. If we look at the relationship between biology and chemistry: bioorganic chemistry, biochemistry, bioinorganic chemistry (we see the study of the structure, composition and migration of metals in the body. (Mn, Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, Mo ) _{_} _ _{_} _ ^_ _ is called ".
The science of biochemistry was created as a result of the generalization of biology and chemistry. Geochemistry studies the distribution of chemical elements in the earth's crust and their minerals in nature.
A number of applied sciences - coal, water, oil, glass chemistry appeared. With the help of chemistry, a number of issues related to the food industry, metallurgy, medicine, and agriculture are being solved.
directions of modern chemistry can be noted:
- synthesis of new chemical compounds and development of their methodology;
- study of chemical reactions under the influence of various chemical factors;
- creation of new methods of chemical analysis - studying the composition and properties of substances;
- study of chemical elements and their isotopes;
- creating various new materials, studying their structure and properties;
- creation of new types of fuel and energy sources;
- creation of experimental methods of purification of substances and separation of mixtures and development of its theoretical principles;
- application of chemistry to electronics;
- synthesizing new medicines, food products;
- creation of technology of use of natural resources;
- chemical analysis and chemical diagnostics;
- chemistry of living organisms.
In 1977, there were 4 million 40 thousand chemical compounds, of which 63 thousand were used in practice, by 1983 there were 5 million 475 thousand types of substances, by 2000 it had increased from 8 million to 20 million by now. more than
Currently, 7,000 chemistry journals are published in the world , and an average of 100,000 articles are published annually . The chemical industry accounts for the highest percentage of production . Currently, a new approach to chemistry "Green chemistry" is being used as a basis for all directions. The future development of chemistry is expected to go mainly in the following directions :
processing (fertilizer , metallurgy , petroleum chemistry, food chemistry ) ;
- creating waste-free technology;
- maintaining the cleanliness of the environment;
- waste processing;
- photosynthesis, laser chemistry, plasma chemistry , nanomaterials, femtochemistry ;
- synthesis under extreme conditions;
The main task of chemistry is to obtain the most necessary materials for mankind from natural substances - metals, ceramics, binders, porcelain, glass, fertilizers, pharmaceutical materials, rubber, plastic, artificial fiber, fuel and food. - aimed at obtaining food products, composite materials and many other materials. For this, chemistry must solve its main problem : that is, what chemical elements the same substance is made of and what changes must be made to obtain the desired materials. From this it follows that the main task of chemistry is to obtain a substance whose property is known in advance and to know or determine the ways to control the property of the substance .
With this in mind, we will summarize the knowledge known so far in the course of the history of chemistry and try to determine the place of chemistry at the present time.
So what place does the history of chemistry occupy in the body of knowledge? Is this subject humanities or natural sciences? We are looking for answers to these questions.
The subject of history of chemistry studies the development of chemistry in different periods, its place among other natural sciences and the stages of development. The "Middle Ages" and "Renaissance" periods occupy a very large place in the history of chemistry. The great scientists of this period, I. Newton, despite being a physicist, dealt with the problems of biology and studied their chemical connections. Thomas Sprott /1667y/ in the book "History of the Royal Society of London" writes that "Chemists are natural researchers, who in most cases discover new things in medicine, are engaged in the search for the "mutation of metals" or the "elixir substance". .
Despite being a chemist, Lavoisier studied combustion from the point of view of a physical process. And Laplace studied the problems of the energy exchange of matter in biology. So, the scientists of this period did not divide sciences into "corridors". They bariwere engaged in general scientific works related to natural sciences.
The main reason for this is, in fact, the complementarity of the basic laws of nature. Physics, chemistry and biology are very close and closely related. German physicist. V. Heisenberg proposes "a closed system of concepts of physics and chemistry that complement each other - quantum theory."
MK Buslova says that these sciences are based on the complex of universal nature, the proof of which is the emergence of the sciences "physical chemistry, biochemistry, geochemistry, cosmochemistry".
Not only natural sciences, but also chemistry is divided into organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry and analytical chemistry, but they are based on chemical description - that is, the composition, structure and chemical bonding of matter.
The history of chemistry can be studied both as a natural science and as a human science. Because the science of chemistry is not satisfied with improving the way of life of people, but it has served to make them civilized. There are many examples of this. Even the meeting of atomic concepts in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet \1615\ is a vivid example of this.
With this in mind, we have the right to study the history of chemistry as a natural and humanitarian science. The reason we say this is because history has proven that putting a "Chinese wall" between knowledge leads to huge mistakes.
The development of society, in turn, requires a systematic study of the research basis of each discipline, its history, technology. This is not only one of the sciences that explain the secrets of nature, but also applies to chemistry, which is considered the main productive force in life. But the collection of dry facts is not history, only theoretical study creates the history of science. Therefore, a historical methodological analysis of development is needed.
VMKedrov proposed that there are two levels of chemical knowledge, these are the teachings about the composition and the structure (structure).
Later, the Nobel laureate Semenov NN introduced a new level of chemical knowledge to it, that is, the doctrine of chemical processes. Using these, the essence of the concept (main views) of creating a history of chemistry was realized taking into account the following;
- stages in the development of knowledge,
- transition from simple to complex,
- to carry out the development of science in connection with production,
- systematization of step-by-step learning in chemical theories (atom, molecule, reacting system).
Now we need to learn how chemistry solves problems in order to know history. What is chemical knowledge characterized by? It can be noted that in all periods of the development of chemistry, the main characteristics of chemical substances were their composition, chemical bonding and structure. VP Kuznesov says that chemistry is the task of obtaining one substance from another - metals, ceramics, plastics, artificial silks, cement, mineral fertilizers, etc. This is a production task, but the processes of their transition to each other and the transformation of their properties from one to another are theoretical problems. These are the keys to getting the right ingredients. Therefore, the study of chemistry is focused on the study of spiral determinism - the interdependence of properties.
Two-time Nobel laureate Linus Pauling defines chemistry as the study of substances, their structure, properties and reactions, as a result of which substances are transformed from one to another.
The history of chemistry conditionally uses the following methods to summarize the scientific work done to explain these issues and to understand the main issue.
1. Worldviews of ancient natural philosophers that lasted until the middle of the 17th century.
2. The capitalist system of production, which began in the second half of the 17th century, led to considering the properties of substances as a function of their chemical composition, taking into account the experiments in natural sciences.

CONTENT PROPERTY

It served as the first concept of chemistry as a science to summarize chemical knowledge.

1. 
   By the beginning of the 18th century, factories and factories were established in production.
   

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This, in turn, is the beginning of the doctrine of the structures of chemical substances and serves as the second concept of generalization of chemical knowledge.

4. By the middle of the 19th century, based on the requirements of the rapid development of production, new problems appeared before the chemical science, i.e. obtaining synthetic rubber, plastics, oils, ceramic products, etc. gave rise to the doctrine of chemical processes and is considered the third concept.

5. The evolution of the main problem of chemistry is the fourth concept, which leads to a (continuous) change from quality to quantity.

The division into the above-mentioned concepts in the study of the main problem of chemistry comes from the constant development from the bottom to the top.
The development of chemistry can be mainly divided into the following 5 stages. Each stage differs in the methods of solving chemical problems:
1 – Step - The period of the development of chemistry from the period of ancient natural philosophy to our history is what we call the period of "alchemy". This period was mainly concerned with collecting evidence about substances and studying their transitions. It covers the period from 2 thousand years to the second half of the 17th century. Their main goal was to find the philosopher's stone.
2 - Stage. It starts from the 2nd half of the 17th century. This period was called experimental chemistry, and they established that chemistry is the science of the composition of substances. He conducted a synthesis, studied their transition to each other as a result of examining the composition of substances, created rules, laws, theories, and analytical chemistry emerged as a qualitative science.
3 - Stage. Starting from the second half of the 18th century, analytical chemistry - and then transitioning to synthetics - "structural chemistry" (structural chemistry) appeared, resulting in dyes, drugs, artificial silk. This period became the basis for the beginning of chemical structure (1860-1880) and caused the rapid development of organic chemistry.
4 - Stage. The 20th century includes a period of rapid development of industry and technology. This period is characterized by obtaining a large amount of specific substances necessary for industry and agriculture. Large quantities of plastics, synthetics, rubber, man-made fibers, detergents, nitrogen fertilizers, etc., with certain properties have begun to be produced.
5 - Stage. Today is the period of development according to the demand of production. During this period, he set himself the goal of creating the doctrine of chemical processes used to obtain substances of the desired composition with the help of various solvent selection, biocatalysts.
Evolution in chemistry is based on the doctrines of kinetics, structural chemistry, biochemistry, bioorganic chemistry, and composition, and how living organisms came to be on Earth. Thus, the history of chemistry - generalizing the complex of knowledge on the basis of laws and theories, studied the development trends of chemistry as a science and a productive force. Thus, the history of chemistry studies the relationship between chemistry and civilization, chemistry and production. Professor SG Kara-Murza, taking into account the currently obtained experimental facts, suggested that "the history of chemistry studies the history of the improvement of the methodological arsenal of chemical science" (Kara-Murza S. G. Technology nauchnix issledovaniy M. Nauka, 1989)
1.1.2. The history of the development of chemistry. Since time immemorial, humans have consumed plant-based foods rich in sugar, fat, and protein. They knew how to make jewelry from gold and silver 6 thousand years ago. As early as 2000 BC, margimush was used to control agricultural pests in China. In those times, various dyes, zinc and sulfur were prepared from plant and animal organisms in Egypt. All nations have known the process of breeding since ancient times. Each nation had its own alcoholic drink. They made it from grain, honey or grape juice. Vinegar is not only used for food preparation, but also for dyeing. But only special people were involved in chemistry in those times. Ancient Greek scientists dealt with the theoretical issues of chemistry in the 5th-6th centuries BC. They explained that the basis of all existence is four - water, air, earth and fire. Later, Aristotle (384-322 BC) theorized that all existence is composed of one basic matter. According to him, four properties: coldness, heat, moisture and dryness are combined in different proportions with the main matter - water, air, earth and fire. For example, adding heat and moisture to basic matter creates air, adding moisture and air to water, and so on. They can also become each other. For example, when the air is cooled, its heat escapes into water, when water is heated, its moisture escapes and turns into soil, etc. Such an Aristotelian view of the material world prevailed in Europe until the 16th century.
The Irish scientist Robert Boyle (1627-1691) made a great contribution to the development of chemistry as a science. In his book