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Factionalism and Islamisation
of Asad’s decisiveness and his making of Balkh his capital in achieving
it, and he underlined the importance of the skirmish. If it had gone the
other way, it is likely that the local rulers of Tukharistan would have
thrown in their lot with the Turgesh, Balkh would have been lost and
from there eastern Khurasan would have been at risk. We are told that
Asad ordered a fast to be observed in Balkh to give thanks to God for
the victory. The defeat of the Turgesh was the major achievement of
Asad’s period of governorship in Khurasan, and in the next year, 738,
he died while still in office, shortly before the fall of his brother, Khalid
al-Qasri, from power in Iraq.
28
As Asad’s successor in Khurasan Hisham appointed Nasr b. Sayyar,
a commander in the army there who had long been involved in the
region’s military affairs under Hisham. As it turned out, he was to be the
last Umayyad governor of Khurasan.
Notes
1. C.H.Becker, “Omar II’,
ZA,
15 (1900), especially 21–5; J.Wellhausen,
Arab kingdom,
264–6; C.E.Bosworth, ‘Raja’ b. Haywa’,
IQ,
16 (1972),
especially 52 ff.
2. H.A.R.Gibb, ‘Fiscal rescript’,
Arabica,
2 (1955); M.A.Shaban,
New
interpretation,
130–1; C.E.Bosworth, ‘Raja’ b. Haywa’,
IQ,
16 (1972), 70–5.
3. J.Wellhausen, ‘Die Kämpfe der Araber mit den Romäern’; E.W.Brooks,
‘The Arabs in Asia Minor (641–750) from Arabic sources’
, Journal of Hellenic
Studies,
8 (1898); M.Canard, ‘Les expeditions…centre Constantinople’,
JA,
108
(1926); R.J.H.Jenkins, ‘Cyprus between Byzantium and Islam’; G.Ostrogorsky,
History of the Byzantine state,
English trans. London, 1956; H.A.R.Gibb,
‘Arab-Byzantine relations under the Umayyad caliphate’ in his
Studies on the
civilization of Islam
.
4. A.Jeffrey, ‘Ghevond’s text’,
The Harvard Theological Review,
1944.
5. M.A.Shaban,
New interpretation,
119–22.
6. J.Wellhausen,
Arab Kingdom,
312–19; F.Gabrieli, ‘La rivolta dei
Muhallibiti’; M.A.Shaban,
New interpretation,
136–7;
idem, ‘Abbasid
revolution,
93–5; P. Crone,
Slaves on horses,
133–5, 141–3.
7. See above, pp. 15, 18.
8. On ‘Umar’s personality and career in general: J.Wellhausen,
Arab
kingdom,
304–11 (attacking the earlier views of Dozy, von Kremer and
A.Müller); C.H. Becker, “Omar II’; H.A.R.Gibb, ‘Fiscal rescript’; W.Barthold,
‘The caliph ‘Umar II’,
IQ,
15 (1971); C.E.Bosworth, ‘Raja’ b. Haywa’, 72–3;
M.A.Shaban,
New interpretation,
131–5.
9. H.A.R.Gibb, ‘Fiscal Rescript’; the ‘document’ comes from the life of
‘Umar II
(Sirat ‘Umar b. ‘Abd al-‘Aziz),
compiled by Ibn ‘Abd al-Hakam who
died in the mid-ninth century.
10. Articles ‘Djizya’, ‘Kharadj’ and ‘Zak
a
t’ in
EI
.
Factionalism and Islamisation
89
11. D.C.Dennett,
Conversion and the poll tax;
see too F.Løkkegaard,
Islamic taxation in the classical period,
Copenhagen, 1950.
12. J.Wellhausen,
Arab kingdom,
286–91.
13. H.A.R.Gibb, ‘Fiscal rescript’, no. xiv and the corresponding note.
14. J.Wellhausen,
Arab kingdom,
450–1; M.A.Shaban,
‘Abbasid revolution,
86–7; in the Arabic script the word for ‘as a circumciser’
(khatinan)
is only
distinguishable by a few dots from ‘as a tax-collector’
(jabiyan),
and one more
frequently finds the saying ‘God sent Muhammad to call men to Islam, not as a
tax-collector’ attributed to ‘Umar.
15. See below, pp. 106–7.
16. On the period of Hisham’s caliphate in general see: F.Gabrieli,
Il
califfato di Hisham;
articles ‘Hisham b. ‘Abd al-Malik’ and ‘Khalid b. ‘Abd
Allah al-Qasri’ in
EI2
.
17. Cf. J.Wellhausen,
Arab kingdom,
328 with P.Crone,
Slaves on horses,
44.
18. W.Tucker, ‘Mugiriyya’,
Arabica,
22 (1975);
idem,
‘Bayaniyya’,
MW,
65
(1975).
19. Article ‘Dja‘d b. Dirham’ in
EI2
.
20. J.Wellhausen,
Arab kingdom,
333–6, 358–9; F.Gabrieli,
Il califfato di
Hisham,
21–7.
21. J.Wellhausen,
Arab kingdom,
339–40;
idem,
‘Die Kämpfe der Araber
mit den Romäern’, 444–5; E.W.Brooks, ‘The Arabs in Asia Minor’; Tabari does
not mention a specific place in connection with al-Battal’s death, saying only
that it was in the ‘land of the Romans’, but tradition attaches it to Karahisar,
west of the lake of Akshahr. The tomb of al-Battal has tended to wander during
the ages, however.
22. D.M.Dunlop,
Jewish Kazars,
58–87; M.A.Shaban,
New interpretation,
144– 8.
23. Edward Gibbon,
Decline and fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 52 (ed.
Bury, vol. vi, 15).
24. J.Wellhausen,
Arab kingdom,
343–5;
The Cambridge history of Africa,
vol. 2, London, 1978, 516–21.
25. J.Wellhausen,
Arab kingdom,
454–5; H.A.R.Gibb,
Arab conquests in
central Asia,
64–7; M.A.Shaban,
‘Abbasid revolution,
106–7.
26. J.Wellhausen,
Arab kingdom,
456–60; H.A.R.Gibb,
Arab conquests in
central Asia,
69–72; M.A.Shaban,
‘Abbasid revolution,
109–12.
27. J.Wellhausen,
Arab kingdom,
464 ff.; H.A.R.Gibb,
Arab conquests in
central Asia,
76 ff.; M.A.Shaban,
‘Abbasid revolution,
118 ff.; article ‘al-Harith
b. Suraydj’ in
EI2
.
28. J.Wellhausen,
Arab kingdom,
467–74; H.A.R.Gibb,
Arab conquests in
central Asia,
81–5; M.A.Shaban,
‘Abbasid revolution,
121–7.
90
Chapter 7
The Third Civil War and the Caliphate of
Marwan II
The third civil war,
1
designated as a
Fitna
like the first two, may be
said to open with the rebellion against Hisham’s successor al-Walid
II in 744 and to end with the establishment of control by Marwan II
over the central provinces of the empire in 747. Since it was
followed almost immediately, however, by the outbreak of the
movement in Khurasan which was to lead to the final collapse of
Umayyad power a couple of years later, and since Marwan II’s
authority never had the same extent as that of earlier Umayyad
caliphs, it is not possible to be precise about the chronological limits
of this third
fitna.
The period was one of complex military and
political turmoil and a breakdown of order. As in the second civil
war, the Arabs of Syria were divided into ‘northern’ and ‘southern’
factions supporting different contenders for the caliphate, again the
Umayyad family was split by internal divisions, again Kharijite and
Shi‘ite movements were able to take advantage of the situation to
establish temporary control over fairly large expanses of territory,
and again religious issues were entwined with the struggles between
rival contenders for power. In spite of these superficial similarities,
however, it is clear that the third civil war was not merely a rerun of
the second, and that is why Marwan II, on emerging from it, was
unable to establish his rule in the same way as had Mu‘awiya and
‘Abd al-Malik when they reestablished unity in 661 and 692.
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