participation. The variable was dichotomous: limited
activity was either present or absent. The expected
negative impact of ill health (here the proxy was activity
limitations) on economic outcomes was confirmed in all
surveyed countries. In Georgia the probability that
individuals whose activities were limited would
participate in the labour market was at least 6.9% lower
than for individuals without such limitations. This rose to
30.4% in Kazakhstan.
A similar exercise found, on the basis of a cross-sectional
and panel analysis of the Bulgarian Living Standard
Measurement Surveys in 1995, 1997 and 2001, that
disability reduced the probability of being employed, but
labour supply, in turn, had little effect on disability
(60)
.
The study employed a simultaneous equation model
(health and employment equations) estimated separately
via maximum-likelihood methods in each of the three
years, as well as a simultaneous equation model on the
available panel data (1995 and 1997).
Health and the labour supply of older workers: the
impact of health on retirement
There is now considerable evidence that ill health plays a
significant and robust role in the decision to retire. Much
of the earlier research was carried out in the United
States, but work and findings from Europe are
increasing.
Several reviews have concluded that the evidence is
sufficient to state that poor health and negative health
shocks increase the probability of retiring in high-income
countries
(19,61–63)
. Health status even emerges as the
main – but of course not the sole
18
– determinant of
labour supply by older workers in several studies. We
review some recent empirical studies on Europe but
caution that when interpreting the results from different
countries and time periods, it is essential to be aware
that results are sensitive to different institutional
frameworks (such as pension rules, availability of
disability benefits and health insurance coverage).
Hagan, Jones and Rice found that health exerted a
significant and strong impact on the probability of
retiring, all else being equal
(65)
. They used data from
nine countries (Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece,
Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom)
covered by the ECHP for 1994–2001, with a sample of
individuals aged 50–64 and either employed or self-
employed in 1994. They used alternative definitions of
retirement (self-reported or based on the transition from
activity to inactivity
19
) and alternative measures of
health (self-assessed health, limitations due to ill health,
Economic costs of ill health
9
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