particularly useful for comparing amongst several competing pro-
jects, all of which demand an investment of the firm’s capital. Even
though all feature positive NPVs, the IRR rule lets a company
make an objective decision. For instance, if a company is presented
with the projects noted in Table 3.4, Project 4 appears to be the
superior alternative.
When project IRR is greater than the cost of capital, the com-
pany achieves a higher return than it is paying for its capital,
meaning that investment in the project is sensible. When IRR is
less than the cost of capital the company does better not to use its
capital to invest in the project. By defining a master IRR curve,
such as the one illustrated in Figure 3.8, we create an entire
relationship of NPVs and acceptance/rejection decisions.
A firm may assign a different cost of capital to each one of its
investment projects, or it may opt for a blended cost of capital (i.e.
the WACC). Individual cost of capital may be selected when
Table 3.4 Sample projects, NPVs and IRRs
Project
Horizon (years)
NPV, $ millions
IRR
1
3
5
8.50%
2
3
6.5
8.75%
3
5
5.5
4.50%
4
4
6
9.75%
5
5
7.25
9.00%
6
5
7
8.75%
7
3
6.5
8.80%
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projects have unique characteristics, such as long maturities, spe-
cial risks, and so forth; this approach can lead to more accurate
decisions as project profitability won’t be overstated or under-
stated. A blended WACC approach may be suitable when a firm’s
investments are largely uniform and no individual project features
unusual risks or characteristics.
We refine this process slightly to make it even more realistic.
Every time a company raises funds to invest or expand, its mar-
ginal cost of capital rises; capital is scarce and the limited supply
means higher cost for each increment raised. This should make
sense: as a firm raises more debt, its financial position becomes
slightly more strained, as debt carries with it the obligation to
make interest payments. This additional pressure, perceptible by
lenders and investors, increases the cost of debt capital slightly.
The same is true of equity: each new share that a company issues
increases dilution, which causes the value of the shares to drop
slightly – again increasing costs. Therefore, if we are considering
each incremental dollar or pound of investment, we can’t look only
at the WACC. We must examine decisions in light of the weighted
marginal cost of capital (WMCC), which is an upward sloping func-
tion (i.e. marginal cost increases with each incremental amount of
capital raised). Figure 3.9 replicates Figure 3.8 with a WMCC
curve (rather than a constant cost of capital or WACC curve); we
notice in this illustration that the acceptance region for projects
Figure 3.8 IRR, NPV and decision rules
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becomes smaller, meaning that a firm will have to find projects
with a higher IRR in order to satisfy an increasing cost of capital.
EXTERNAL FORCES AND FINANCIAL DECISIONS
While our discussion above focuses on internal issues we must not
forget our comments from Chapter 1: a firm doesn’t operate in
isolation, but is impacted by external market forces that must be
considered when applying financial concepts and tools to decision-
making. It’s easy to imagine that the current and anticipated state
of the economy, the level of interest rates and inflation, the size
and direction of essential capital flows, and the nature of competi-
tion and regulation can all play a part in shaping a company’s
fortunes. The decision-making process must therefore take account
of these external variables.
Consider one very simple example: ABC Co. wants to invest in a
new project that will expand capacity. Its initial decision on whe-
ther to invest will be based on various internal concepts (motiva-
tions, optimal financial structure) and its quantitative evaluation of
the opportunity (WACC, NPV decision rules). However, if ABC
Co. is acting prudently, it must also consider how the expansion
will affect, and be affected by, the outside environment. If
the economy is in recession and expected to stay that way for
several more quarters, it may be prudent to delay the project. If
Figure 3.9 IRR, NPV and WMCC
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inflation is accelerating and ABC Co.’s costs of production will rise
in tandem, the profit margins on the new production may be
squeezed to the point where the investment is no longer compel-
ling. Or, if the economy is strong and interest rates are at a low
point in the cycle it may be sensible to proceed to lock in a low
cost of capital. If competitors are similarly planning to add
capacity, ABC Co. may even wish to accelerate the process in order
to gain market share more rapidly. Each one of these forces may
have a bearing on ABC Co.’s ultimate success/failure with the
project.
Chapter summary
Financial decision-makers require a set of concepts and tools in order
to make reasoned decisions. Risk is central to any discussion of financial
decision-making. Risk must always be weighed against potential return
in order to ensure a proper balance. An investment or project that car-
ries a greater degree of risk, as measured by standard deviation (or the
variation of actual outcomes from an expected value), must feature a
greater return than a similar project with a lower degree of risk. In
order to properly manage overall risks, the effects of adding multiple
investments or projects to a portfolio must be considered; this process
is known as risk diversification. Positively correlated investments/
projects can create an incremental amount of risk, while those that are
negatively correlated can reduce risk. Enterprise value can be managed
by understanding the impact of risk, inputs, and outputs on corporate
operations. Firms that feature low earnings or high earnings volatility
are likely to be worth less than those with high earnings or stable
earnings streams. The cost of capital is an essential element of the
financial decision process. It indicates the cost to the firm of raising
capital to fund ongoing operations. Cost of capital can be segregated
broadly into cost of debt and cost of equity (common stock and retained
earnings). Combining the proper proportions of each component in the
firm’s capital structure yields a weighted average cost of capital. The
time value of money is another central building block of finance. Pre-
sent value reflects the value today of cash flows to be generated in the
future; such cash flows are discounted back to the present by a com-
pany’s cost of debt. Future value reflects the value, at some point in the
future, of a stream of cash flows; the cash flows compound at a rate
determined by the cost of debt. Net present value is an associated
decision rule that allows evaluation of cash investment (outflows) and
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receipts (inflows) on a project or investment. Internal rate of return is
the cost of capital that forces the NPV computation to zero.
FURTHER READING
Haugen, R., 2000, Modern Investment Theory, 5th edition, Englewood
Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall.
Maness, T. and Zietlow, J., 2004, Short-Term Financial Management,
Mason OH: Southwestern College Publishers.
Seitz, N. and Ellison, M., 2004, Capital Budgeting and Long-Term Finan-
cial Decisions, 4th edition, Mason OH: Southwestern College Publishers.
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