particular classes of risk?
The definitive answers to these questions will again depend on a
company and its operations, its comfort and experience with risk,
and the nature of the markets/opportunities.
THE FINANCIAL PROCESS
A company trying to maximize the value of its operations clearly
faces many financial decisions. Financial decision-making depends
on a process that standardizes the task and provides continuous
feedback. The financial process can be viewed as a three-stage cycle
that is driven by the financial goals a firm hopes to achieve. The
process begins with a review of the company’s financial position
(financial reporting/analysis) and is followed by the development
of short- and long-term plans (financial planning), which leads to
the execution of certain actions (financial decisions). These deci-
sions will yield results that affect the firm’s financial position,
allowing the cycle to begin anew. The process is thus continuous: a
company operating in a dynamic environment must constantly
evaluate its financial position and options in order to continue
meeting its goals.
FINANCIAL REPORTING/ANALYSIS
Financial reporting/analysis relates to the composition, structure,
and trend of a company’s financial position, most often conveyed
through three key financial statements that are prepared and dis-
tributed every quarter or year:
Balance sheet: A point-in-time reflection of a company’s assets,
liabilities, and capital
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Income statement: A cumulative reflection of a company’s
revenues, expenses, and profits
Cash flow statement: A cumulative reflection of the cash flowing
into, and out of, a company.
These statements are supplemented by other information, includ-
ing financial footnotes and detailed management discussion
and analysis. All of this reporting/analysis demands established
accounting rules, which inject uniformity into the process.
Through the reporting mechanism internal and external stake-
holders can determine how a firm, such as ABC Co., has performed
over time (and versus the competition) and what its financial
position is at any moment. We will review these key financial
statements in more detail in Chapter 2.
FINANCIAL PLANNING
Financial planning is the second phase of the financial process. It
helps define the actions that a firm needs to take over the short
term and long term to meet its goals.
Some aspects of financial planning deal with an immediate time
horizon, generally one week to one year. These issues center on
the daily management and progress of corporate operations, such as:
Working capital and liquidity management: Managing cash,
short-term assets and liabilities
Hedge management: Rebalancing financial/operating risks
through the use of various types of instruments intended to
protect against losses
Funding management: Arranging financing through the loan or
capital markets.
Other dimensions of financial planning are based on longer-term
goals. Such strategic financial management is critical to the meth-
odical expansion of corporate operations and enterprise value.
Issues in this category relate to:
Capital investment: Managing long-term investment projects,
research and development, and capital expenditures
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Capital structure: Identifying the optimal blend of debt, equity,
and off balance sheet funding
Mergers and acquisitions: Creating expansion opportunities
through corporate combinations or restructuring
Tax planning: Optimizing operations to reduce the tax burden
International operations: Managing operations in, and expand-
ing into, offshore markets
Dividend policy: Developing a proper methodology to pay
dividends to investors
Risk management: Creating a consistent, long-term, approach
to the management of financial, operating, and legal risks.
While short- and long-term planning are essential to the con-
tinued success of any company, they can lead to different goals:
plans (and subsequent decisions) that are based on the short term
tend to focus on near-term profitability; those of a longer-term
nature center on sustainable enterprise value creation over multiple
reporting periods.
FINANCIAL DECISIONS
A company can make decisions once its financial position is well
understood and its tactical/strategic plans have been formulated.
Decisions are made by using specific financial concepts and tools,
such as the risk/return tradeoff, risk diversification, cost of capital,
time value of money, net present value, and investment rules (all
of which we will discuss in Chapter 3). Concepts and tools help a
company objectively understand the impact of translating plans
into actionable decisions.
The three dimensions of the financial process are thus part of a
continuous cycle: a firm examines its financial position, develops
short-term and long-term plans and makes decisions to put the
plans into motion. The next set of financial statements will reflect
some aspects of decisions that have been taken, and can be used as
the basis for further short-term and long-term financial plans and
decisions. Figure 1.1 summarizes this cycle. Naturally, a company
following this process must make its short- and long-term financial
actions meaningful and must also be flexible enough to adapt to
changing circumstances.
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EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FACTORS
External and internal forces impact the financial actions and activ-
ities of firms operating in a complex economic world. Every com-
pany is influenced, directly or indirectly, by macro-economic
factors, such as economic growth, inflation, interest rates, currency
rates, commodity/input prices, consumer confidence, and debt
levels. It may also be impacted by the state of the industry in
which it operates, competitive pressures, availability of sub-
stitutes, and regulatory restrictions. A company must generally
react or adapt to these external forces: since they are so powerful
and pervasive, they are typically beyond the control or influence
of any single company (or industry), and must therefore be
viewed as factors that shape the base operating environment.
Assume, for instance, that ABC Co. is operating in a macro
environment characterized by healthy growth, strong consumer
confidence, and robust demand; all other things being equal,
ABC Co.’s ability to sell its products will be greater than if
Figure 1.1 The three-stage cycle of the financial process
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the economy were in recession. Similarly, if several new com-
petitors have entered the same industry, ABC Co. may feel
heightened pressures that force it to change its pricing or market-
ing tactics. It can react or adapt to, but not change, the competitive
environment.
Internal forces are equally important in dictating a company’s
path to success. These may include a company’s financial
strength and resources, its access to cash and financing, its
approach to strategic ventures, its ability to respond to pricing/
costing changes in the face of fluctuating supply and demand,
and the quality and experience of its leadership. Each one of
these factors is within a company’s control and can be changed
over the short or medium term, generally unilaterally. For
example, ABC Co. may believe that raising additional capital to
expand its operations or purchase a smaller rival may give it the
competitive edge it requires. Or, the company may believe that
it needs a stronger marketing team in order to boost its sales, so
it may choose to hire top sales producers from a competitor. It
can take these actions on its own, and hopefully improve its
fortunes.
THE COMPLETE FINANCIAL PICTURE
We’ve now introduced several elements of the financial world:
definition/scope, goals, and process, along with the impact of
internal/external forces. Once these are assembled, we develop a
summary picture of the financial world.
To recapitulate, we know that finance is the study of how com-
panies (and individuals and countries) can increase value or wealth.
By using financial concepts and tools in a three-stage financial
process, a company can achieve its financial goals. While value
maximization is the ultimate goal for a firm operating in a free
market economy, it is driven by maximization of profits, effective
management of liquidity and solvency, and proper management of
risks. But the financial process is dynamic and subject to the effects
of internal and external factors. So, any process that is imple-
mented to fulfill financial goals must take account of these factors
and adapt to them through a continuous feedback process. This
financial picture is summarized in Figure 1.2.
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OUTLINE AND STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK
Finance is clearly vital to the activities of companies, individuals
and sovereign nations. The question is how to deal with the topic
in a manner that is comprehensive – but also manageable, rele-
vant, and interesting. To accomplish this goal we will approach the
subject by focusing on three broad areas, or ‘‘pillars’’: concepts and
Figure 1.2 The complete financial picture
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tools, instruments and transactions, and participants and markets.
By exploring finance in this way, we’ll be able to cover the key
micro and macro dimensions in a logical manner.
We begin by considering concepts and tools. This provides the
essential background needed to understand the mechanics of
finance, and helps clarify the company-wide issues that we’ll con-
sider in subsequent portions of the book. We will start with an
examination of corporate financial statements, focusing on:
Financial structure and reporting: The nature and use of the
balance sheet, income statement, and statement of cash flows.
With an understanding of financial statements and how they can
be used as part of the decision-making process, we will then turn
our attention to fundamental financial tools. These are well estab-
lished principles for quantifying and evaluating many of the issues
companies face:
Risk considerations: The nature of risk and return, risk diver-
sification, and value maximization
The price of capital: The determination of interest rates/yield
curves, stock prices, and the weighted cost of capital
Time value of money: The use of present value and future value
Investment decisions: The use of net present value, internal rate
of return, and decision rules.
Once we’ve assembled this financial ‘‘toolkit’’ we’ll explore the
nature of financial instruments and transactions that let companies
achieve particular goals. Our intent with this second pillar is to
demonstrate how specific assets, liabilities, off balance sheet con-
tracts and restructuring transactions are used to advance the for-
tunes of companies and their stakeholders. Our discussion will
focus on:
Common and preferred stock: The nature and use of equity-
related instruments
Loans and bonds: The nature and use of debt-related instruments
Investment funds: The nature and use of investment mechanisms
that incorporate multiple assets
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Derivatives and insurance: The nature of risk management and
the use of instruments to hedge or assume risk
Corporate finance: The nature and use of corporate restructur-
ing transactions.
We will then examine the third pillar of finance – the macro pic-
ture. Specifically, we will consider how key participants and mar-
kets support, and are supported by, activities at the micro level.
We shall do this by describing:
Financial participants: Intermediaries, end-users, and investors
Global financial markets: Macro-structure of the markets, macro
variables, monetary policy, and the nature of the twenty-first-
century marketplace.
The three pillars that comprise the world of finance are summar-
ized in Figure 1.3.
Chapter summary
Finance, which is the study of factors that impact the wealth or value of
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