participants with innovative ways of solving financial problems.
Intermediaries are likely to develop increasingly innovative
solutions as technology advances permit more precise pricing of
risks, the capital bases and risk-taking abilities of intermediaries
continue to expand, and competitive pressures threaten profits.
In fact, there is already substantial evidence that this is occur-
ring: many new derivative instruments and corporate financing
techniques have been created in recent years, and electronic
trading conduits (e.g. electronic communications networks, or
ECNs, which allow for virtually instantaneous online trading)
have become commonplace, supplementing more traditional
trading forums.
Greater transparency: We have stressed the importance of
financial statements in the analysis and decision-making pro-
cess, and we’ve noted some of the efforts that have occurred in
recent years to inject a greater level of transparency into the
corporate accounts (e.g. moving off balance sheet items back on
the balance sheet, disclosing more information about risks, and
so on). As the major accounting approaches of the world begin to
harmonize, and as investors and analysts continue to demand more
information as part of the governance and accountability pro-
cess, financial statement transparency should continue to improve.
Competitive pressures should also play a role: as one company
begins to publish increasingly detailed accounting information,
peer companies may be ‘‘forced’’ to do the same – again, to the
benefit of investors, creditors and other stakeholders.
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Increased efficiencies: Enterprise value can be enhanced through
improved efficiencies. We know that companies that are able to
reduce SG&A or operating expenses and manage their working
capital and risks more efficiently can boost value. Technology
is, of course, central to enhanced efficiencies. We cite just a few
of many examples: workplaces are increasingly automated,
meaning firms spend less time and expense on manually
intensive work processes; computer-based real-time inventory
management is also increasingly common, allowing firms to
keep a minimal amount of raw materials on hand – this leads to
smaller inventories and lower inventory financing costs; e-
commerce distribution/sales solutions, an important channel of
revenue generation for small and large firms, are increasingly
used to shrink or eliminate aspects of the physical distribution
system; and so forth. Deregulation can also generate effi-
ciencies. Since forces of deregulation lead to the opening of
markets to new competitors, price competition often results.
Those operating in a previously regulated market may be ben-
eficiaries of such price competition through lower input prices.
Naturally, firms that must generate revenues in a deregulating
market will feel the same price pressures; to preserve profit
margins they will be forced to find new ways of cutting costs
or, in more extreme scenarios, merge or acquire in order to
achieve economies of scale.
Deeper global penetration: The concept of the global cor-
poration has been mooted for many decades and appears now to
be a reality. Firms with a national focus have long sought to
expand their geographic presence by creating operations in
other countries or acquiring/partnering with foreign entities.
Deregulation and mobile capital, coupled with increasingly
simple and efficient forms of technological communication
across borders, means that companies choosing to establish a
global footprint can do so with greater ease. This has impor-
tant implications for various aspects of finance: greater oppor-
tunities to source raw materials in offshore locations; larger
currency exposures that need to be managed actively; more
chances to distribute goods and services to a wider audience,
accompanied by faster inventory and receivables turnover; and
so on.
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Forces of change and market impact are summarized in Figure 10.2.
Our list here is not, of course, all-inclusive. Other benefits will
invariably accrue to companies that use the latest financial techni-
ques, products and instruments to manage their daily operations.
And others as yet unknown will appear over time as the landscape
continues to evolve. However, many of the core financial operating
principles we have discussed in this book will continue to remain a
relevant, and important, cornerstone of prudent management.
Chapter summary
The key markets of the global financial system include the money, bond
and loan, stock, foreign exchange, commodity, and derivative markets.
The relationships between different segments of the financial markets
are complex and changeable: changes in one market can impact capital
flowing into, or out of, another market. While such relationships may
hold firm under most market conditions, they may also vary during
times of market stress, causing previously held notions of ‘‘normal
behavior’’ to be brought into question. Rising and falling interest rates,
inflation rates, and economic growth rates can affect the performance
of different asset classes. In order to help manage aspects of the
financial markets and national economy, countries can employ fiscal
Figure 10.2 Forces of change and market impact
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and monetary policy techniques. Fiscal policy, which relates primarily to
changes in taxes and spending, is a medium- to long-term approach.
Monetary policy, generally conducted by the national central bank, is a
shorter-term mechanism for managing inflation and interest rates and,
by extension, economic growth. Key tools of monetary policy include
bank reserve requirements, open market operations, and discount rate
changes. The marketplace of the new millennium is dynamic, and sub-
ject to a variety of forces that alter its structure; these include dereg-
ulation, capital mobility, volatility, and technology. The dynamism of
the marketplace can lead to greater competition, innovation, transpar-
ency, efficiencies, and global penetration.
FURTHER READING
Carnes, W. S. and Slifer, S., 1991, The Atlas of Economic Indicators, New
York: HarperCollins.
Levich, R., 2001, International Financial Markets: Prices and Policies, 2nd
edition, New York: McGraw-Hill.
O’Brien, T., 2005, International Financial Economics, 2nd edition, Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Ross, S., Leroy, S. and Werner, J., 2000, Principles of Financial Economics,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Selected references
Banks, E., 2005, The Financial Lexicon, London: Palgrave Macmillan.
—— 2004, Alternative Risk Transfer, Chichester, John Wiley & Sons.
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Bodie, Z. and Merton, R., 1999, Finance, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Brealey, R. and Myers, S., 2002, Principles of Corporate Finance, New
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Carnes, W. S. and Slifer, S., 1991, The Atlas of Economic Indicators, New
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Fabozzi, F. (ed.) 2003, Bond Markets, 5th edition, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
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Index
Accounts payable, 25, 121
Accounts receivable, 25
Acquisitions, 186, 189–92
Add-on, 96
American option, 167
Annuity, 67
Asset-backed securities, 125
Assets, 24
Balance sheet, 12, 24–30
Bancassurance, 213–14
Bank reserve requirements, 233–4
Bermudan option, 168
Beta, 57, 88
Block trades, 100
Board of directors, 80
Bonds, 123
Building society, 212–13
Call option, 167
Callable bond, 119
Capital asset pricing model, 56–7,
88
Capital lease, 124
Capital mobility, 236–7
Captives, 182–3
Carve-out, 195
Cash and short-term securities, 25
Cedant, 175
Certificates of deposit, 122
Closed end fund, 142–3
Coinsurance, 177
Collateralized debt obligations,
125
Commercial bank, 211
Commercial paper, 121–2
Commodity markets, 226–7
Common and preferred stock, 79–
102
Dividend policy, 83–5
Equity capital costs and share
valuation, 85–94
Instrument characteristics, 94–8
Issuing and trading, 98–101
Uses of common and preferred
stock, 79–83
Common stock, 27, 97
Conglomeration, 190
Constant dividend growth model,
92
Convertible bonds, 123–4
Corporate finance, 185–203
Corporate finance challenges,
201–3
Transaction characteristics,
189–97; Leveraged buyouts,
192–5; Mergers and
acquisitions, 189–92;
Recapitalization, 196–7;
Spin-offs, 195–6
Uses of corporate finance, 185–
9
Valuing corporate finance
deals, 197–201
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Corporation, 80
Correlation, 54–5
Cost of equity, 88
Cost of goods sold, 31
Credit spread, 112
Current assets, 27
Current liabilities, 27
Current ratio, 39
Debt/assets, 41
Debt/equity, 40
Debt capital markets, 226
Debt risk premium, 112
Debt service, 106
Deductible, 177
Default, 60
Deferred taxes and expenses, 27
Depository receipt, 97
Depository shares, 97
Depreciation, 27
Deregulation, 236
Derivative markets, 227
Derivatives, 152–3
Derivatives and insurance, 152–84
Instrument characteristics,
derivatives, 158–75;
Exchange-traded
derivatives, 171–5; Over-
the-counter derivatives,
161–71
Instrument characteristics,
insurance, 175–83;
Captives, 182–3; Full
insurance, 179–80; Loss
sensitive contracts, 181–2;
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