Stry of higher and secondary specialized education of the republic of uzbekistan national university of uzbekistan

1.2 Lexical-syntactical stylistic devices
Words in a context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in the dictionaries, what we have called contextual meanings. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary meaning. What is known in linguistics as transferred meaning is practically the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual.
The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and frequent use of the word other than in its primary meaning. In this case we register a derivative meaning of the word. Hence the term transferred should be used signifying the development of the semantic structure of the word. In this case we do not perceive two meanings. When we perceive two meanings of the word simultaneously, we are confronted with a stylistic device in which the two meanings interact.¹⁶
It is well known that the study of the sentence and its types and especially the study of the relations between different parts of the sentence has had a long history. Modern grammars have taken under observation the peculiarities of the relations between the members of the sentence, but the study of units of speech larger than the sentence is still being neglected by many linguists.¹⁷
Stylistics takes as the object of its analysis the expressive means and stylistic devices of the language which are based on some significant structural point in an utterance, whether it consists of one sentence or string of sentences.
While in lexical SD the desired effect is achieved through the interaction of lexical meanings of words and in syntactical SD through the syntactical arrangement of elements, the third group of SD is based on the employment of both — fixed structure and determined scope of lexical meanings.
Antithesis is a structure consisting of two steps, the lexical meanings of which are opposite to each other. The steps may be presented by morphemes, which brings forth morphological antithesis, (underpaid and overworked); by antonyms (or contextual antonyms) and antonymous expressions which is the case of antithesis proper; and by completed statements or pictures semantically opposite to one another which brings forth developed antithesis.
In order to characterize a thing or phenomenon from a specific point of view it may be necessary not to find points of resemblance or association between it and some other thing or phenomenon, but to find points of sharp contrast, that is to set one against the other.¹⁸ Opposition should be distinguished from antithesis:
A saint abroad and a devil at home.
That is an opposition which is represented in antonyms. Antithesis is of a different linguistic nature: it is based on relative opposition which arises out of context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pairs:
Man proposes, God disposes. Antithesis can be rhythm-forming:
Youth is lovely, age is lonely,
Youth is fiery, age is frosty;
Litotes presupposes double negation; one-through the negative particle no or not; the other-through
a) a word with a negative affix not hopeless;
b) a word with a negative or derogatory meaning not a coward;
c) a negative construction not without love;
d) an adjective or adverb proceeded by too not too awful.
The stylistic function of all these types is identical: to convey the doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object in question.
The lexical meaning of the second component of litotes is of extreme importance, for similar structures may lead to opposite effects ('looking not too bad' expresses a weakened positive evaluation, while 'looking not too happy' expresses a weakened negative evaluation of the phenomenon).
Common Litotes Examples - In everyday life, it is common to experience litotes in conversations, though not many people are aware of this term and its usage. Few examples of litotes from daily conversations:

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  They do not seem the happiest couple around.
  
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  The ice cream was not too bad.
  
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  New York is not an ordinary city.
  
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  Your comments on politics are not useless.
  
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  You are not as young as you used to be.
  
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  I cannot disagree with your point of view.
  
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  William Shakespeare was not a bad play wright at all.
  
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  He is not the cleverest person I have ever met.
  
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  She is not unlike her mother.
  
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  Ken Adams is not an ordinary man
  
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  A million dollars is no small amount.
  
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  You are not doing badly at all.
  
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  Your apartment is not unclean.
  

Function of Litotes - Litotes uses ironic understatement in order to emphasize an idea or situation, rather than minimizing its importance. It rather discovers a unique way to attract people’s attention to an idea, and that is by ignoring it.
Simile is also a structure of two components joined by a fixed range of linkadverbs like, as, as...as, as though, etc. If there is no formal indicator of simile while semantic relations of both parts of the structure remain those of resemblance and similarity, we may speak of a disguised simile which preserves only one side of the SD - lexical, modifying its other side - structural.
True enough, instead of the accepted simile-formants, in disguised similes there are often used verbs, lexical meanings of which emphasize the type of semantic relations between the elements of the utterance, such as 'to remind', 'to resemble', 'to recollect', 'to seem' and others.¹⁹
If the basis of similarity appears to the author vague, he supplies the simile with a key, immediately following the structure and revealing those common features of two compared phenomena which led to the origination of the SD.
Common Examples of Simile - There are many common examples of simile used in everyday conversation and writing. Here are some well-known phrases that utilize this figure of speech:

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  Nutty as a fruitcake
  
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  Slept like a log
  
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  Sly as a fox
  
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  Fits like a glove
  
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  Cool as a cucumber
  
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  Blind as a bat
  
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  Light as a feather
  
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  Like watching paint dry
  
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  Works like a charm
  
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  Old as the hills
  
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  Pretty as a picture
  
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  Hurts like the devil
  
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  Strong as an ox
  
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  Fight like cats and dogs
  
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  Sparkle like diamonds
  
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  Cheeks like roses
  
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  Flat as a pancake
  
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  Eyes like glass
  
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  Sweet as sugar
  
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  Dull as a doorknob
  
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  Bright as the sun
  
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  Tough as nails
  
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  Smart as a whip
  
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  Mad as a hatter
  
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  Happy as a clam
  

One of the most common concepts to feature simile as a literary device is love. Here are some memorable lines and quotes that showcase simile as an effective comparison for describing love:

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  Love is like war: easy to begin but very hard to stop. H.L. Mencken
  
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  Life without love is like a tree without blossoms or fruit. Khalil Gibran
  
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  Love is like a friendship caught on fire. Bruce Lee
  
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  Love is like a faucet; it turns off and on. Billie Holiday
  
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  Love is like a beautiful flower which I may not touch, but whose fragrance makes the garden a place of delight just the same. Helen Keller
  
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  Love is like the measles. The older you get it, the worse the attack. RainerMaria Rilke.
  

The structure of periphrasis is modeled with difficulty, for it is exceedingly variable. Very generally and not quite precisely it can be defined as a phrase or sentence, substituting a one-word denomination of an object, phenomenon, etc.
Proceeding from the semantic basis for the substitution, periphrases fall into logical, euphemistic and figurative. The main stylistic function of all these types is to convey the author's subjective perception, thus illuminating the described entity with the new, added light and understanding. Climax refers to an expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its original meaning or novelty. A cliché may also refer to actions and events that are predictable because of some previous events.²⁰
All examples of cliché are expressions that were once new and fresh. They won popularity in the public and hence have been used so extensively that such expressions now sound boring and at times irritating, due to the fact that they have lost their original color. For instance, the phrase “as red as a rose” must have been a fresh and innovative expression at some point in time, but today it is considered universally as a cliché, and does not make such an impact when used in everyday or formal writing.