Special text: Unusual railways Special text: Underground railways

NOTES:
1. piers fpiaz[ piəz] — опоры, быки (моста)
2. John Roebling ['dзכn 'roublin]—Джон Роублинг
3. Niagara [nai'ægərə] — Ниагара
4. should the structure collapse — если конструкция обрушивалась
5. Thomas Bouch ['tכməs 'bu∫] — Томас Буш
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY

1	obstacle ['כbstəkl] n	препятствие, помеха	To’siq
2	overcome an obstacl	преодолевать препятствие	To’siqlardan o’tmoq
3	across [ə'krכs] prep	через;	Orqali
4	cross [krכs] v	Пересекать	Kesishmoq
5	suggest [sə'dзest] v	Предлагать	Taklif etmoq
6	try [trai] v	пытаться, подвергать испытанию	Harakat qilmoq,urinmoq
7	fasten ['fa:sn] v	прикреплять, скреплять	Mustahkamlamoq
8	beam [bi:m] n	балка, укосина	Balka
9	span [spæn] n	пролет (моста), длина (моста)	Most uzunligi
10	reinforced concrete [,ri:in'fכ:st 'kכnkri:t]	Железобетон	Beton
11	tower ['tauə] n	башня, опора	Bino, asos
12	opposite ['כpəzit] prep	Напротив	Teskarisi, qarshisi
13	deck [dek] n	настил, пол (вагона); ярус	Vagon poli
14	roadway ['roudwei] n	проезжая часть	Harakat yo’li (temiryo’l)
15	gain [gein] v	получать, приобретать; выигрывать	Yig’moq, yutmoq
16	prevent (from) [pri'vent] v	предотвращать, препятство­вать	To’sib qolmoq, oldini olmoq
17	refuse [ri'fju:z] v	отказаться;	Rad etmoq
18	previous ['pri:vjəs] а	предыдущий, предшествующий	avvalgi
19	failure ['feiljə] n	неудача, провал; авария, поврежде­ние	Muvaffaqiyatsizlik, avariya
20	carry a load	нести нагрузку	Yukni tashish
21	reasonable ['ri:znəbl] а	нормальный; умеренный, обос­нованный	Sababli, asoslangan
22	until [ən'til] t\	пока не	……-maguncha
23	Jorce [fכ:s] n; v	сила ,заставлять, воздействовать силой	Kuch, majburlamoq, ta’sir etmoq
24	aboard [ə'bכ:d] adv	на борту (на поезде);	bortda
25	aboard a train	сесть в поезд	Poyezdga chiqmoq
26	exact [ig'zækt] а	Точный	Aniq
27	estimate ['estimeit] v	оценивать, подсчитывать (при­близительно)	Hisoblamoq (taxminan)
28	take into consideration	учитывать, принимать во внимание	Inobatga olmoq
29	close (to) [klous] а	близкий;	Yaqin
30	necessitate [ni'sesiteit]v	требовать, влечь за собой	Talab qilmoq, ga olib kelmoq
31	beyond [bi'jכnd] prep	за пределами, вне	…..-dan tashqarida
32	influence fmfluans] n	влияние; v оказывать влияние, влиять	Ta’sir etmoq
33	capacity [k'pæsiti] n	способность, производительность, мощность	Imkoniyat, ishlab chiqish quvvati
34	carrying capacity	негушая способность (конструкции); пропускная (провозная) способность пути	Tashish quvvati, chidash quvvati

THEME TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
PROGRESS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
I
(1) Thousands of miles of railroad tracks in the world never see daylight for they are built in the black depth of the earth. It often takes great technical skill and ability to avoid tunnels because of their enormous cost of construc­tion. But there are places where a tunnel is the only way through an obstacle. The Alps may serve as an example.
(2) For hundreds of years the peaks of these mountains had been an obstacle to communication between European countries. In the middle of the 19th century, constantly expanding railways made the French and Italian Govern­ments seek for a direct connection. The experts spoke in favour of tunnelling. A tunnel eight miles through the Alps? Some people had doubts, but some dared to do it.
(3) Boring the Mont Cenis tunnel, the Alpine pioneer, was an extremely hard job. With only hand tools employed, the advance was very slow. Had the construction continued at the initial rate, it might have taken 75 years to complete the tunnel! However, with compressed-air drills and dynamite introduced, the progress was accelerated. In 1870 the news flashed through Europe that the Alps had been conquered at last. But the tunnellers may have encountered some more difficulties with the tunnel since it was only in 1871 that the Mont Cenis tunnel was opened fo'r traffic.
(4) The success of the Mont Cenis tunnel started a wave of Alpine tunnels, the St. Gotthard and Simplon tunnels being the most remarkable among them. The story of their construction is the story of constant struggle of tunnellers against the powerful,,foj;ces^of nature. Very often hidden mountain streams of extremely hot water rushed into the-workings. Rock dust and fumes from oil lamps and explo­sives filled the hot steamy air poisoning the workers. There is no need to say that a special ventilation system ought to have been used. Unfortunately, the ventilation methods being unknown at that time, the death-rate among the tunnellers was extremely great.
(5) In spite of all difficulties the workers and engineers completed their task successfully.
(6) Another tunnel of some interest up to our time is the tunnel under the river Thames. By present standards this tunnel may be said to be a very archaic structure, but it is still in use as part of the London underground railway system because it was a pioneer of construction in the modern manner. While building this tunnel Mark Brunnel, a cele­brated engineer, worked out the idea of using a shield² to lead the excavation.
(7) If you happened to travel by London Underground you must have read the following words on the wall of one of the stations: "This tunnel which runs under the Thames from this station was the first tunnel ever driven beneath the river. It was designed by Sir Mark Istambul Brunnel and completed in 1843."


II
(8) Owing to В runnel's shield method and many other improvements in tunnel construction tunnelling has become a regular thing in railroad engineering.
(9) A significant progress has been made in tunnel boring in Japan. In this country the world's longest railway tunnel is to be built to link two Japan's islands Honshu and Hok­kaido. Here are some figures to characterise this project. The total length of the tunnel is supposed to be nearly 54 km. At some points the tunnel is to be bored 240 m below the sea surface and 100 m above the sea bottom,
(10) You may have heard about the project of the Channel Tunnel which would permit to link London and Paris by a direct journey. This project has been much talked about for the last 150 years. The tunnel would have many points in its favour: it would not interfere with navigation, nei­ther would it be affected by weather conditions.
(11) The long history of the Channel Tunnel began in 1802 when a French engineer Albert Mathiew prepared a scheme of a tunnel to link France and England. Had this tunnel been built the communication between these two countries could have been facilitated. But the plan had a short life for the war between England and France began in 1803, and the English people were glad that there was no direct link with France.
(12) In the course of time the existing means of com­munication between England and the continent could not cope with the increased volume of traffic. As a result, sev­eral projects of the Channel Tunnel were proposed. One of them was placed before the British and the French Govern­ments in the 1950's.
(13) According to this project the Channel Tunnel was supposed to consist of a pair of single-track tunnels and a service tunnel, all being connected by transverse galleries at certain intervals.
(14) As fog, snow or ice could not interfere with traffic, a high degree of reliability would be attained. With electric traction being employed, the need for ventilation would be eliminated. The London to Paris trip would be made by through trains -in about 4 hrs 20 min. However, the project caused scepticism on account of its high cost, and the Brit­ish Government refused from its construction because of financial difficulties.
(15) Nevertheless, the Channel Tunnel problem seems to be moving to its final solution for quite recently an agree­ment has been signed between the British and the French Governments giving the green light to a modified version of the Channel Tunnel rail project.
(16) The plan is reported to provide a high-speed twin rail link with shuttle trains³ cutting the journey time from London to Paris to three-and-a-half hours. When fully opera­tional, the tunnel will carry over 4,000 vehicles an hour in each direction. The project is scheduled for completion in six years.
I
(1) Dunyodagi minglab milya temir yo'llar hech qachon kunduzni ko'rmaydi, chunki ular yerning qora chuqurligida qurilgan. Tunnellardan qochish uchun ko'pincha katta texnik mahorat va qobiliyat talab etiladi, chunki ularning qurilishi juda katta. Ammo shunday joylar borki, tunnel to'siqdan o'tishning yagona yo'lidir. Bunga Alp tog'lari misol bo'la oladi.
(2) Yuzlab yillar davomida bu tog'larning cho'qqilari Evropa mamlakatlari o'rtasidagi aloqaga to'siq bo'lib kelgan. 19-asrning oʻrtalarida doimiy ravishda kengayib borayotgan temir yoʻllar Fransiya va Italiya hukumatlarini toʻgʻridan-toʻgʻri bogʻlanishga intildilar. Mutaxassislar tunnel qazishni yoqlab chiqishdi. Alp tog'lari orqali sakkiz milya tunnel bormi? Ba'zi odamlarda shubha bor edi, lekin ba'zilari bunga jur'at etishdi.
(3) Alp tog'lari kashshofi Mont Cenis tunnelini zerikish juda qiyin ish edi. Faqat qo'l asboblari ishlatilsa, avans juda sekin edi. Agar qurilish dastlabki sur'atda davom etganida, tunnelni qurish uchun 75 yil kerak bo'lishi mumkin edi! Biroq, siqilgan havo matkaplari va dinamitning kiritilishi bilan taraqqiyot tezlashdi. 1870 yilda Evropa bo'ylab Alp tog'lari nihoyat zabt etilgani haqidagi xabar tarqaldi. Ammo tunnelchilar tunnel bilan bog'liq yana bir qancha qiyinchiliklarga duch kelgan bo'lishi mumkin, chunki Mont Cenis tunneli faqat 1871 yilda harakatlanish uchun ochilgan.
(4) Mont Cenis tunnelining muvaffaqiyati Alp tog'lari tunnellarining to'lqinini boshladi, Sent-Gotthard va Simplon tunnellari ular orasida eng diqqatga sazovordir. Ularning qurilishi tarixi tunnelchilarning tabiatning kuchli, foj;ces^lariga qarshi doimiy kurashi hikoyasidir. Ko'pincha yashirin tog 'oqimlari juda issiq suv ish joylariga oqib tushdi. Tosh changlari va moy lampalari va portlovchi moddalarning bug'lari issiq bug'li havoni to'ldirib, ishchilarni zaharladi. Maxsus shamollatish tizimidan foydalanish kerak edi, deb aytishga hojat yo'q. Afsuski, o'sha paytda shamollatish usullari noma'lum edi, tunnelchilar orasida o'lim darajasi juda katta edi.
(5) Barcha qiyinchiliklarga qaramay, ishchilar va muhandislar o'z vazifalarini muvaffaqiyatli bajardilar.
(6) Bizning vaqtgacha qiziq bo'lgan yana bir tunnel Temza daryosi ostidagi tunneldir. Hozirgi me'yorlarga ko'ra, bu tunnel juda qadimiy tuzilma deb aytish mumkin, ammo u hali ham London metrosi temir yo'l tizimining bir qismi sifatida qo'llanilmoqda, chunki u zamonaviy uslubda qurilishning kashshofi bo'lgan. Ushbu tunnelni qurishda taniqli muhandis Mark Brunnel qazish ishlarini olib borish uchun qalqondan2 foydalanish g'oyasini ishlab chiqdi.
(7) Agar siz London metrosida tasodifan sayohat qilgan bo'lsangiz, bekatlardan birining devorida quyidagi so'zlarni o'qigan bo'lsangiz kerak: "Ushbu stantsiyadan Temza ostidan o'tadigan tunnel daryo ostidan o'tkazilgan birinchi tunnel edi. Ser Mark Istambul Brunnel tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan va 1843 yilda yakunlangan.

II
(8) V runnel qalqoni usuli va tunnel qurilishidagi boshqa ko'plab yaxshilanishlar tufayli tunnel qurish temir yo'l muhandisligida odatiy holga aylandi.

(9) Yaponiyada tunnel qazishda sezilarli yutuqlarga erishildi. Bu mamlakatda Yaponiyaning ikkita Xonsyu va Xokkaydo orollarini bog'laydigan dunyodagi eng uzun temir yo'l tunneli quriladi. Ushbu loyihani tavsiflovchi ba'zi raqamlar. Tunnelning umumiy uzunligi qariyb 54 km bo'lishi kerak. Ba'zi nuqtalarda tunnel dengiz sathidan 240 m pastda va dengiz tubidan 100 m balandlikda qazilishi kerak.
(10) London va Parijni to'g'ridan-to'g'ri sayohat orqali bog'lashga imkon beradigan Kanal Tunnel loyihasi haqida eshitgan bo'lishingiz mumkin. Ushbu loyiha haqida so'nggi 150 yil davomida ko'p gapirildi. Tunnel o'z foydasiga ko'p jihatlarga ega bo'lar edi: u navigatsiyaga xalaqit bermaydi va ob-havo sharoitlariga ta'sir qilmaydi.
(11) Channel tunnelining uzoq tarixi 1802 yilda frantsuz muhandisi Albert Metyu Frantsiya va Angliyani bog'laydigan tunnel sxemasini tayyorlaganida boshlangan. Agar bu tunnel qurilganida bu ikki davlat o'rtasidagi aloqa osonlashgan bo'lar edi. Ammo Angliya va Frantsiya o'rtasidagi urush 1803 yilda boshlangan va ingliz xalqi Frantsiya bilan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri aloqa yo'qligidan xursand edi.
(12) Vaqt o'tishi bilan Angliya va qit'a o'rtasidagi mavjud aloqa vositalari yuk tashish hajmining ortishi bilan bardosh bera olmadi. Natijada, Kanal tunnelining bir nechta loyihalari taklif qilindi. Ulardan biri 1950-yillarda Britaniya va Fransiya hukumatlari oldiga qoʻyilgan.
(13) Ushbu loyihaga ko'ra, Kanal tunneli bir juft tunnel va xizmat tunnelidan iborat bo'lishi kerak edi, ularning barchasi ma'lum vaqt oralig'ida ko'ndalang galereyalar bilan bog'langan.
(14) Tuman, qor yoki muz harakatga xalaqit bera olmasligi sababli, yuqori darajadagi ishonchlilikka erishiladi. Elektr tortishdan foydalanish bilan shamollatish zarurati yo'qoladi. Londondan Parijga sayohat poezdlar orqali 4 soat 20 daqiqada amalga oshiriladi. Biroq, loyiha qimmatligi sababli shubha uyg'otdi va Britaniya hukumati moliyaviy qiyinchiliklar tufayli uni qurishdan bosh tortdi.
(15) Shunga qaramay, Kanal tunnel muammosi o'zining yakuniy yechimiga o'tayotganga o'xshaydi, chunki yaqinda Britaniya va Frantsiya hukumatlari o'rtasida Manş tunnel temir yo'li loyihasining o'zgartirilgan versiyasiga yashil chiroq yoqadigan kelishuv imzolangan.
(16) Rejaga ko'ra, Londondan Parijgacha bo'lgan yo'l vaqtini uch yarim soatgacha qisqartiradigan poezdlar3 bilan tezyurar egizak temir yo'l aloqasini ta'minlaydi. Tunnel toʻliq ishga tushirilgach, har bir yoʻnalishda soatiga 4000 dan ortiq avtomobil oʻtadi. Loyihani olti yil ichida yakunlash rejalashtirilgan.