Special text: Unusual railways Special text: Underground railways

NOTE:
1. it goes without saying—не приходится говорить
2. for handling radioactive elements —для манипулирования с радиоактивными элементами
3. the electricity grid system—единая энергосистема

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY

1	power supply [sə'plai]	энергоснабжение;	energiya ta’minoti, quvvati
2	proper ['рrכpə] а	правильный, надлежащий	mos, to’g’ri keladigan
3	generate ['d3enəreit] v	производить, вырабатывать (энергию)	ishlab chiqarmoq
4	thermal ['Ǿə:mə1] а	Тепловой	issiqlik
5	always ['כ:lwəz] adv	всегда	doim
6	fuel [fjuəl] n	Топливо	yoqilg’i
7	exhaust [ig’zכ:st] v	истощать, исчерпывать	sarflamoq, tugatmoq
8	result (in) [ri'zΛlt] v	приводить (к)	natijaga olib kelmoq
9	discover [dis'kΛvəri] v	делать открытие	yaratmoq, ochmoq
1	cause [kכ:z] n	Причина	sabab (bo’lmoq)
11	compete [kəm’pi:t] v	конкурировать	raqobatlashmoq
12	conventional [kən'venfənl] а	обычный, традиционный	odatiy, an’anaviy
13	contain [kən'tem] v	содержать, вмещать	o’z ichiga olmoq
14	equal ['i:kwəl] а	Равный	teng
15	drawback ['drכ:bsæk] n	недостаток, отрицательная сторона	muammo,kamchilik
16	measure ['mезə] v	измерять, п мера	o’lchamoq,
17	locate [lou'keit] о	размещать; определять местонахож­дение	joylmoq, joyini aniqlamoq
18	trouble ['trΛbl] п	авария, затруднение	muammo, qiyinchilik
19	distribute [dis'tnbju:t] v	Распределять	tarqatmoq
20	nuclear ['nju:kliə] а	Ядерный	yaderniy
21	current ['kΛrənt] п	электрический ток;	elektr toki,
22	alternating ['כ:ltəneitiђ] current (а. с.)	переменный ток	o’zgaruvchan tok
23	direct current (d. с.)	постоянный ток	o’zgarmas tok
24	the ... the	чем ... тем	qancha…..shuncha….
25	convert (to) [kən'və:t] v	преобразовывать(в); пере­водить (на)	-ga aylantirmoq, o’zgartirmoq
26	transform (into) [trsæns'fכ:m] v	преобразовывать (в); превращать	-ga aylantirmoq,
27	lower [louə] v	Понижать	pasaytirmoq
28	instrument ['mstrumənt] n	прибор, аппарат	jihoz, apparat
29	fit [fit] v	снабжать, оборудовать; устанавливать	jihozlamoq,o’rnatmoq
30	overhead (contact) wire	контактный провод	kontakt simi, ulanadigan sim
31	due to ['dju: tə] prep	благодаря, ввиду	-ga ko’ra, …tufayli
32	remote [ri'mout] control	ди­станционное управление	Masofaviy boshqaruv

LESSON 12. THEME: CARRIAGES AND WAGONS
I
(1) The cars used on the early railways were very much like the stage-coaches¹ and wagons travelling on ordinary roads. Although drawn by horses, these vehicles had flanged wheels² which kept them on the rails.
(2) The very first freight cars are known to have been used in coal mines in England. They were open-top wagons which had wooden wheels and were pulled by horses along wooden rails. They were followed by platform cars, also known as flat cars, upon which the freight was piled and covered with tarpaulin to protect it from the weather. As the goods often fell off and were easily damaged, the plat­forms were fitted with low sides and ends. Later, covered cars came into existence.
(3) As time went on and railroads had to carry more and more freight, bigger and better cars were invented for hauling different kinds of goods. Today, the railroads have several classes of freight cars, there being many varieties in each class.
(4) The box car is considered to be the most common type of covered car. It is a general-purpose car intended to carry all kinds of ordinary goods which must _be protected from the weather. A special type of box car is a refriger­ator car used for hauling food products. The walls, floor and roof of this wagon are air- and waterproof to protect goods from the heat of the outside air.
(5) Another type of car is a tank car intended for liquid goods. The long cylindrical tank of the car is filled through an opening on the top and emptied through a spe­cial device in the bottom.
(6) Coal, ore, gravel, and other similar goods are known to be conveyed in open-top cars, the principal types of these being the gondola and the hopper car. Both types are designed for mechanized loading and unloading and, therefore, built especially strong and durable.
(7) The simplest type of car is the flat car. Being usually employed for transporting rails, beams, timber, and heavy machines, they, if fitted with special devices, can also carry containers. The container traffic is now coming into wide use on all modes of transport because it reduces the cost of loading and unloading goods and decreases the danger of their breakage. The fact is that goods are packed into containers at factories or warehouses and are not disturbed while in transit, thus being conveyed from "door-to-door".
(8) In addition to the normal-type wagons there exist special freight cars for special kinds of goods. The example of a special-type car is sure to be a double-deck car used to carry automobiles. The conveyance of automobiles by rail has turned out to be more economical than by road.
II
(9) As mentioned above, the early passenger cars were copied after stage-coaches and were very small and uncom­fortable. In England, the carriages for the first class pas­sengers had three compartments with soft seats and doors at either side. There was a high seat at the back for the guard, the baggage being carried on the roof. The second class carriages also had roofs, but the sides were low and the seats were hard and primitive. As to the third class passengers, they had to ride in uncovered wagons having no seats at all. The early trains had neither lighting nor heating.
(10) Some decades later, about 1840, there appeared carriages which looked more like today's cars. They had the body we are familiar with in modern railways. The body was mounted on two four-wheel trucks. Inside, these carriages were open from end to end and the seats were arranged along either side. The carriages were lighted by oil lamps, heated by stoves, and had wash-rooms at both ends. These cars made it possible for the railroads to carry much more passengers in a single train, and the increased com­fort and conveniences made it possible for the trains to travel longer routes.
(11) The prototype of the modern sleeping car is known to have appeared in the middle of the last century and George M. Pullman, an American publisher, is regarded to be its inventor.
(12) We know the passenger rolling stock of today to comprise several types of cars. There exist sleeping and dining cars, coaches for day and night service, saloon coaches for tourists, etc. The modern rolling stock is built with two. types of inside arrangement. One is the compart­ment type with a side corridor, and the other is the open vehicle with a central passage.
(13) Many innovations have been introduced in car construction since the early days. Modern carriages are made of light-weight steel, aluminium and plastics. The application of these materials has resulted in considerable reduction of the rolling stock weight and, in addition, has increased the resistance of cars to corrosion. That is to say, these materials and design improvements have provided better performance of cars and decreased maintenance costs.
(14) That railroad travel depends largely upon the stand­ards of railroad cars and service seems to be quite evident. At present, most long-distance trains are being furnished with fluorescent lighting and air-conditioning, the former gives a considerable saving in power compared to conven­tional lighting. As regards the air-conditioning, it is likely to be one of the most remarkable developments being intro­duced on railways. Although it involves extra weight and cost, its application is justified by the comfortable condi­tions of travel. If universally introduced, these and other improvements will allow railways to compete more success­fully with air and road transport.
I
(1) Ilk temir yo'llarda foydalanilgan vagonlar oddiy yo'llarda harakatlanadigan vagonlar va vagonlarga juda o'xshardi. Garchi otlar tomonidan tortilgan bo'lsa-da, bu transport vositalarining relslarda ushlab turuvchi gardishli g'ildiraklari2 edi.
(2) Eng birinchi yuk vagonlari Angliyadagi ko'mir konlarida ishlatilganligi ma'lum. Ular yog'och g'ildiraklari bo'lgan va otlar tomonidan yog'och relslar bo'ylab tortilgan ustki ochiq vagonlar edi. Ularning ortidan yassi vagonlar deb ham ataladigan platformali vagonlar ketayotgan bo'lib, ular ustiga yuk uyib qo'yilgan va ob-havodan himoya qilish uchun brezent bilan qoplangan. Tovarlar tez-tez yiqilib, osongina shikastlanganligi sababli, platformalar past tomonlari va uchlari bilan jihozlangan. Keyinchalik yopiq avtomobillar paydo bo'ldi.
(3) Vaqt o'tishi bilan va temir yo'llar tobora ko'proq yuk tashishga majbur bo'ldi, har xil turdagi yuklarni tashish uchun kattaroq va yaxshiroq vagonlar ixtiro qilindi. Bugungi kunda temir yo'llarda yuk vagonlarining bir nechta sinflari mavjud, ularning har birida ko'plab navlar mavjud.
(4) Qutili avtomobil eng keng tarqalgan yopiq avtomobil turi hisoblanadi. Bu ob-havodan himoyalanishi kerak bo'lgan barcha turdagi oddiy yuklarni tashish uchun mo'ljallangan umumiy maqsadli avtomobil. Vagonning maxsus turi oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarini tashish uchun mo'ljallangan muzlatgichli mashinadir. Ushbu vagonning devorlari, pollari va tomi havo va suv o'tkazmaydigan bo'lib, yuklarni tashqi havoning issiqligidan himoya qiladi.
(5) Avtomobilning yana bir turi suyuq yuk uchun mo'ljallangan vagon-sisternadir. Avtomobilning uzun silindrsimon baki yuqoridagi teshik orqali to'ldiriladi va pastki qismidagi maxsus moslama orqali bo'shatiladi.
(6) Ko'mir, ruda, shag'al va boshqa shunga o'xshash tovarlar ustki ochiq vagonlarda tashilishi ma'lum, ularning asosiy turlari gondol va bunkerli vagondir. Ikkala tur ham mexanizatsiyalashgan yuklash va tushirish uchun mo'ljallangan va shuning uchun ayniqsa kuchli va bardoshli qurilgan.
(7) Avtomobilning eng oddiy turi - tekis avtomobil. Odatda relslar, to'sinlar, yog'och va og'ir mashinalarni tashish uchun foydalaniladi, agar ular maxsus qurilmalar bilan jihozlangan bo'lsa, konteynerlarni ham tashishi mumkin. Konteyner tashuvi hozirda transportning barcha turlarida keng qo‘llanilayapti, chunki u yuklarni ortish va tushirish xarajatlarini kamaytiradi va ularning sinish xavfini kamaytiradi. Gap shundaki, tovarlar fabrikalarda yoki omborlarda konteynerlarga qadoqlanadi va tranzit paytida bezovtalanmaydi, shuning uchun "uyma-uy" dan olib o'tiladi.
(8) Oddiy turdagi vagonlarga qo'shimcha ravishda maxsus turdagi tovarlar uchun maxsus yuk vagonlari mavjud. Maxsus turdagi avtomobil misolida, avtomobillarni tashish uchun ishlatiladigan ikki qavatli avtomobil bo'lishi aniq. Avtomobillarni temir yo'lda tashish avtomobilga qaraganda ancha tejamkor bo'lib chiqdi.
II
(9) Yuqorida ta'kidlab o'tilganidek, dastlabki yo'lovchi avtomashinalari bosqichli murabbiylardan keyin ko'chirilgan va juda kichik va noqulay edi. Angliyada birinchi toifadagi yo'lovchilar uchun vagonlar yumshoq o'rindiqli va ikkala tomonida eshiklari bo'lgan uchta bo'limga ega edi. Orqa tomonda qo'riqchi uchun baland o'rindiq bor edi, tomda yuk ko'tarilgan. Ikkinchi toifali vagonlarning ham tomlari bor edi, lekin yon tomonlari past, oʻrindiqlari qattiq va ibtidoiy edi. Uchinchi toifadagi yo'lovchilarga kelsak, ular o'rindiqlari yo'q, ochiq vagonlarda yurishlari kerak edi. Dastlabki poyezdlarda yorug'lik ham, isitish ham yo'q edi.
(10) Oradan bir necha oʻn yillar oʻtib, taxminan 1840-yilda, bugungi avtomobillarga koʻproq oʻxshagan vagonlar paydo boʻldi. Ular zamonaviy temir yo'llarda bizga tanish bo'lgan tanaga ega edi. Kuzov ikkita to'rt g'ildirakli yuk mashinasiga o'rnatilgan. Ichkarida, bu vagonlar boshidan oxirigacha ochiq va o'rindiqlar har ikki tomonda joylashgan edi. Vagonlar moy lampalar bilan yoritilgan, pechkalar bilan isitilib, ikki chetida yuvinish xonalari bor edi. Bu vagonlar temir yo‘llarga bir poyezdda ancha ko‘proq yo‘lovchi tashish imkonini yaratdi va ortib borayotgan qulaylik va qulayliklar poyezdlarning uzoqroq yo‘nalishlarda harakatlanishiga imkon yaratdi.
(11) Zamonaviy uyqu mashinasining prototipi o'tgan asrning o'rtalarida paydo bo'lganligi ma'lum va uning ixtirochisi amerikalik nashriyot Jorj M. Pullman hisoblanadi.
(12) Bizga ma'lumki, bugungi kunda yo'lovchilar harakatlanuvchi tarkibi bir necha turdagi avtomobillarni o'z ichiga oladi. Yotoq va ovqatlanish vagonlari, kechayu kunduz xizmat ko'rsatuvchi vagonlar, sayyohlar uchun salon vagonlari va boshqalar mavjud. Zamonaviy harakat tarkibi ikkitadan iborat. ichki tartibga solish turlari. Ulardan biri yon koridorli kupe turi, ikkinchisi esa markaziy o'tish joyi bo'lgan ochiq avtomobil.
(13) Dastlabki kunlardan boshlab avtomobil qurilishida ko'plab yangiliklar kiritildi. Zamonaviy vagonlar engil po'lat, alyuminiy va plastmassalardan yasalgan. Ushbu materiallarni qo'llash harakatlanuvchi tarkibning og'irligini sezilarli darajada kamaytirishga olib keldi va qo'shimcha ravishda vagonlarning korroziyaga chidamliligini oshirdi. Ya'ni, ushbu materiallar va dizaynni yaxshilash avtomobillarning yaxshi ishlashi va texnik xizmat ko'rsatish xarajatlarini kamaytirish imkonini berdi.
(14) Temir yo'l sayohati ko'p jihatdan temir yo'l vagonlari va xizmat ko'rsatish standartlariga bog'liqligi aniq ko'rinadi. Hozirgi vaqtda ko'pgina uzoq masofali poezdlar lyuminestsent yoritish va konditsionerlar bilan jihozlangan, birinchisi an'anaviy yoritishga nisbatan quvvatni sezilarli darajada tejash imkonini beradi. Konditsionerga kelsak, bu, ehtimol, temir yo'llarda joriy etilgan eng ajoyib ishlanmalardan biri bo'lishi mumkin. Bu qo'shimcha og'irlik va xarajatlarni talab qilsa-da, uni qo'llash sayohatning qulay sharoitlari bilan oqlanadi. Agar universal tarzda joriy qilinsa, bu va boshqa yaxshilanishlar temir yo'llarga havo va avtomobil transporti bilan yanada muvaffaqiyatli raqobatlashish imkonini beradi.