12
On Teaching Specific Mathematical Subjects
in Schools
The development and analysis of new mathematics courses for
schoolchildren, as well as the reorganization of existing courses, are
reflected in scholarly works and, in particular, in dissertations. Among
the studies devoted to new approaches to teaching geometry, we
cite the work of Podkhodova (1999). The distinctive characteristic
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of this study consists in the fact that, while traditionally the sys-
tematic course in geometry started in seventh grade (sixth grade in
the old numeration), Podkhodova sets up the task of developing a
systematic course for grades 1–6, i.e. of viewing the informal study
of geometry as a unified course and enriching it with new material.
Consequently, the aim of her research is to provide a theoretical–
methodological foundation for the construction of such a course,
taking into account new conceptions of education. Among the key
principles identified by her are cohesiveness and unity, the simultaneous
study of plane-geometric and three-dimensional objects, and paying
attention to the students’ subjective experience. She underscores the
importance of making a special selection of educational materials and
constructing a special system of problems. Her study makes substantial
use of psychological research. She has prepared numerous teaching
manuals on the basis of the theoretical propositions articulated in
her study.
Orlov’s (2000) work is based on ideas that are similar to the
work just discussed. The aim of this researcher is to construct a
course in geometry for ordinary schools, not as a course that conveys
an already-existing body of knowledge, but as a course that relies
on active cognitive activity by the students and on their experience
(pp. 4–5). Consequently, the study contains both an analysis of various
approaches to teaching geometry and a discussion about works on
child development. Subsequently, the author turns to the theoretical
principles on which the course he envisions must be based (such
as the requirement that the material studied be organized in large
blocks, that two-dimensional and three-dimensional geometry be
studied simultaneously, and that various types of independent work
be included in the course). In his conclusion, Orlov describes the
results of experimental teaching which, according to him, confirm the
positive influence of his methodology on the development of students’
intellectual abilities.
Totsky’s work (1993), which draws on Polish material, proposes
constructing a course in geometry on the basis of what the author calls
a “locally deductive approach.” According to him, such an approach
involves the creation of “little deductive islands” — minisystems
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linked up into thematic lines — and also gives a prominent role to
inductive reasoning, with only a gradual generalization of concepts
and properties (p. 20). He describes a corresponding methodology
and cites experimental teaching data and its results.
While the two studies just cited are devoted to seeking new ways
of teaching a traditional course, the work of Ermak (2005) goes
substantially beyond the bounds of traditional organization: its subject
is the construction of an integrated course in geometry and natural
science. Therefore, although the structure of this study resembles that
of the studies described above (analysis of existing work–theoretical
construction–experiment), its approach differs because of its extensive
use of nonmathematical and nonmethodological literature. In particu-
lar, the author draws the conclusion that one of the reasons for students’
difficulties stems from an unjustifiable lack of attention to what she calls
“the psychological structure of geometric images,” noting “the paucity
of individual aggregates of spatial figures, geometric representations”
(pp. 25–26).
In this section, we should also mention the work of Tazhiev (1998),
although its title, “A Statistical Study of School Education as the
Basis for Didactic Models of Mathematics Education,” might lead
one to believe that its main content concerns a statistical study of
school education (in Uzbekistan). In reality, only one chapter of
this study is devoted to these disheartening statistics, while the rest
deal precisely with the teaching of geometry. The author conducts
an analysis of the concepts studied in the course in plane geometry
(determining, for example, that the course is overloaded), discusses the
pedagogical foundations of teaching proofs, proposes a didactic model
for increasing knowledge in three-dimensional geometry (pointing out
the utility of solving problems and using visual models), and finally
addresses the importance of a practical orientation in education. He
reports on experiments that he has conducted, but does not discuss
them in his summary.
Breitigam (2004) studies the problem of students’ comprehension
and assimilation of elementary calculus. This leads her to ask what
precisely is meant by “comprehension” or “meaning.” Unpacking
the significance of these words, the author offers several definitions,
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including a logical–semiotic definition, a personality-based definition,
and a structural subject-based definition, which consists of identifying
the basic idea in a concept and establishing a substantive connection
between ideas (pp. 8–9). She characterizes the approach which she
developed as “pragmatically semantic” and involves the identification
of basic educational ideas and objects, as well as the use of various
forms of representation of knowledge. She emphasizes the selection of
problems and laboratory projects, as well as dialogs “aimed at getting
the students to grasp various contexts of meaning” (p. 31).
The work of Sidorov (1994), in contrast with almost all of the
studies described in this section thus far, contains no description of
an experiment; it is based on the author’s numerous publications
and represents their theoretical generalization. He sees his novel
contribution in this study as consisting in “the development of
theoretical approaches to the creation of courses in mathematics
for secondary schools and colleges on the basis of a conception of
their continuity” (p. 5). He distinguishes between three levels of
requirements for students — minimal, middle, and heightened — and
proposes constructing school courses in such a way that they might
include a certain core (mandatory topics) as well as “outer layers”
added in accordance with plans for the students’ future studies and
also in accordance with the preferences (likely more subjective ones)
of the teacher and the student. A coauthor of numerous textbooks,
Sidorov then goes on to demonstrate how these textbooks correspond
to the theoretical views that he has laid out.
Plotsky’s (1992) dissertation, which makes use of Polish material,
is devoted to stochastics, a new field for Russian (and Polish) schools.
Like the previous study, this dissertation is based on the author’s
numerous textbooks and aims to give a foundation to the notion
of teaching stochastics within the framework of “mathematics for
everybody.” The author’s model involves (1) active instruction in
mathematics (mathematical activity), (2) the study of stochastics as
a body of student-discovered methods for analyzing and describing
reality, (3) the study of problem situations as sources of stochastic
problems, and (4) the use of inactive and iconic means of representing
stochastic knowledge. He buttresses his views and conclusions with
references to his textbooks.
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