x −
1
4
x
.
Simplify the expression
13
15
m −
3
4
m +
1
12
m and find its value
when m = 2
1
2
; 6
1
4
.
Solve the equation
7
12
m +
2
3
m −
1
4
m = 7. (p. 89)
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
Arithmetic
Algebra
Divide:
3
5
÷
9
25
; 3
7
39
÷ 1
5
31
.
(p. 98)
Represent the following quotient in
the form of a fraction:
m
n
÷
a
k
; b ÷
c
n
.
(p. 98)
Solve the equation (a) y ÷ 1
1
2
= 2
1
3
·
1
3
;
(b) 3
1
2
2
3
x +
4
7
= 2
1
3
. (p. 100)
II. Decimal fractions
Find the value of the
expression
102,816 ÷ (3.2 · 6.3) + 3.84.
(p. 67).
Simplify the expression
3.7x + 2.5y + 1.6x + 4.8y. (p. 76)
Solve the equation
9.5x − (3.2x + 18x) + 3.75 = 6.9.
(p. 78)
Compute
0 .2 · 6 .2 ÷ 0 .31 −
5
6
· 0 .3
2
+ 1
4
11
· 0.22 ÷ 0.01
. (p. 112)
Find the value of the expression
(a)
2x
y
−
x
2y
when x = 18.1 − 10.7,
y = 35 − 23 .8;
(b)
a
5.7 − 4.5
+
a
2.8 + 4.4
when
a = 2
1
7
+ 1
4
5
. (p. 112)
III. Ratios and proportions
Find the ratio of 0.25 to
0.55. (p. 118)
The length of a rectangle is a cm and
its width is b cm. The length of
another rectangle is m cm and its
width is n cm. Find the ratio of the
area of the first rectangle to the area of
the second rectangle. Find the value
of the obtained expression if a = 6.4,
b = 0.2, m = 3.2, n = 0.5. (p. 123)
IV. Positive and negative numbers
Perform the following
operations:
−6 · 4 − 64 ÷ (−3.3 + 1.7).
(p. 198)
Find the value of the expression
(3 m + 6 m) ÷ 9, if m = −5 .96.
Solve the equation
−
4
7
y =
8
21
. (p. 198)
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143
Arrange the terms in a
convenient order and find
the value of the expression
−6.37 + 2.4 − 3.2 +
6.37 − 2.4. (p. 208)
Simplify the expression
6.1 − k + 2.8 + p − 8.8 + k − p.
(p. 208)
Remove the parentheses
and find the value of the
expression
−6.9 − (4.21 − 10.9).
(p. 216)
Simplify the expression
−a − (m − a + p);
m − (a + m) − (k + a). (p. 217)
Write down the difference of the two
expressions
−p − a and k − a, and
simplify it. (p. 217)
Solve the equation
7.2 − (6.2 − x) = 2.2. (p. 217)
The solutions to the equations reproduced in this table are based
on arithmetic techniques: students solve them by relying on facts
about dependencies between the components of operations, which are
expressed in rules for finding unknown terms, minuends, divisors, and
so on. At the same time, these types of equations have a fairly high level
of difficulty.
Note that the subject of equations involves not only using algo-
rithms, but also using the algebraic method to solve word problems.
Students solve a considerable number of word problems by forming
equations. The problems’ algebraic component is developed in parallel
with the formation of students’ operational abilities and is connected
with the content of arithmetic problems. We will illustrate this by
providing examples of problems solved by sixth graders:
(1) In order to make sour cherry jam, one must combine two parts
cherries with three parts sugar (in mass). How many kilograms of
sugar and how many kilograms of cherries must be used in order
to obtain 10 kg of jam if its mass is reduced by 1.5 times during
cooking?
[Equation: 3x + 2x = 10 · 1.5, where x is the mass of one part
in kilograms.
]
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
(2) Three boxes contained 76 kg of sour cherries. The second box had
twice as many sour cherries as the first, while the third contained
8 kg more sour cherries than the first. How many kilograms of
sour cherries were in each box?
[Equation: x + 2x + (x + 8) = 76, where x is the mass of sour
cherries in the first box, in kilograms.
]
(3) The arithmetic mean of four numbers is 2.75. Find these numbers
if the second is 1.5 times greater than the first, the third is 1.2 times
greater than the first, and the fourth is 1.8 times greater than the
first.
[Equation: (x + 1.5x + 1.2x + 1.8x) ÷ 4 = 2.75, where x is
the first number.
]
(4) A father is 3
1
3
times older than his son, while the son is 28 years
younger than his father. How old is the father and how old is the
son?
Equation
: 3
1
3
x − x = 28 , where x is the son’s age.
This organic integration of arithmetic and algebra concludes with
a certain systematization of the algebraic material: an examination of
strictly algebraic questions — removing parentheses, the coefficient,
like terms, and solving equations. The solving of equations is now
grounded in the use of rules for equivalent transformations of equations
(the word “equivalence” — which in Russian textbooks is reserved
for logical equivalence only — is, of course, not used at this stage).
Here, the students deal with formal algebra, and the level of the
transformations presented to them is quite high.
In this way, these textbooks achieve rather close integration of
arithmetic and algebraic material. However, teaching experience points
to a number of negative consequences arising from such early and
insistent “algebraization.” First, this approach to some extent hinders
the formation and development of practically oriented arithmetic skills,
such as the use of percentages in real-life situations. While students
formally assimilate the central topics of arithmetic — fractions and
decimals — their computational skills suffer. A considerable percentage
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of students is unable to compare fractions or put them in ascending
order, to shift from one form of fractional notation to another. This
is revealed by both national and international studies. Thus, many
students have difficulty with the following types of problems:
• Which of the following numbers is the smallest:
1
6
,
2
3
,
1
3
,
1
2
.
• Which of the following numbers is contained between the
numbers 0.07 and 0.08? 0.0075, 0.6, 0.075, 0.75.
• Find the ratio of the numbers 0.5 and 0.3.
Setting the formation of formal-operational skills pertaining to the
transformation of literal expressions as a central objective, the authors
rise to a sufficiently high level of such transformations, exceeding
the capacities of a considerable number of 12-year-old children.
Schoolchildren are not always able to handle much easier problems
than those which they solve in class (see the table above). For example:
• Solve the equation
1
2
x = 6.
• Which of the following expressions is equal to the sum
a + a + a + a?
(1) a + 4, (2) a
4
, (3) 4a, (4) 4(a + 1).
As a consequence, the textbooks of the following stage (Makarychev
et al., 2009a, 2009b, 2009c) do not begin at the level set by the
textbooks of Vilenkin et al. In terms of the transformations of algebraic
equations that the students are asked to carry out and the equations
that they are asked to solve, the first classes in algebra at the following
stage of education (grade 7) do not constitute a natural continuation
of what has come before; in these classes, everything begins anew.
The key feature of the second set of textbooks for this stage of
schooling (Dorofeev, Sharygin et al., 2007a, 2007b) stems from the
emphasis that they place on the arithmetic and algebraic components
of the course: the balance in them has shifted in favor of the former.
A greater role is now played by arithmetic, the study of number
systems, computational algorithms; most importantly, the course relies
extensively on using arithmetic methods to solve word problems, which
is seen as an effective way to facilitate the students’ logical development.
At the same time, the approach to presenting algebraic material is
fundamentally altered as well. The quantity of formal “algebraic” work
is substantially reduced; the very purpose of studying this material is
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