Elements of algebra
All programs study equalities and inequalities (beginning in the first
grade), numerical expressions and expressions with variables, equations
(typically beginning in the first and second grades; but, in Istom-
ina (2009), only in the fourth grade), and elements of functional
propedeutics. The following exercise may serve as an example:
Substitute appropriate numbers for letters. Solve. Compare values.
a − b ÷ c and (a − b) ÷ c. What numbers can take the place of a, b,
c, and what numbers cannot? (Alexandrova, 2009, 4th grade, pt. 1,
p. 147)
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Additionally, some of the textbooks look at solving problems by
means of equations, solving equations based on the properties of
equalities, and complex form equations. For example, Arginskaya et al.
(2009) include the following exercise for the third grade:
Compare the equations. What is the difference between the equations
in the right column and the left column?
12x − x − 55 = 0
2
· (y − 15) + 8y = 5
5
+ 6a + 4a = 95
2
· (x + 3) + 5 = 17
3
· (x − 1) + 12 = 18
(k + 3 ) · 5 − 34 = 31
7.2.6
Elements of combinatorics
Several textbooks consider combinatorial problems (finding commu-
tations, permutations, or combinations), solving them either directly
by enumeration or using tables and graphs. Here are some examples:
• You have the following products to prepare a breakfast: banana,
coconut, baked potato, fish. How many different breakfasts
consisting of two dishes will you be able to put together?
(Bashmakov and Nefedova, 2009)
• Write down all possible three-digit numbers composed of the
digits 3, 5, and 0. (Moro et al., 2009)
• Masha, Vika, Alla, and Tania call each other before a trip. How
many phone calls did they make if every girl spoke once to every
other girl? (Ivashova et al., 2009)
The last problem may be solved with the help of a table or a diagram:
Fig. 4.
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7.2.7
Elements of logic, set theory, modeling
Some of the curriculum “complexes” consider elements of set theory,
including such concepts as sets, member of a set, ways of defining a
set, intersection of sets, union of sets, and properties of sets (Dorofeev
and Mirakova, 2009; Ivashova et al., 2009; Peterson, 2009). Some
of the textbooks take up construction of basic logical expressions
using the words “and,” “or,” “if … , then … ” (Alexandrova, 2009;
Istomina, 2009; Ivashova et al., 2009; Peterson, 2009; Rudnitskaya
and Yudacheva, 2009). Students are asked to compose expressions of
various types and determine their truth value.
Many of the textbooks contain exercises aimed at developing
mental operations, including exercises involving comparison, analysis,
classification, generalization, concretization, and pattern detection
(especially in tables of addition and multiplication).
It should be noted that all “complexes” make use of modeling. The
ability to use different kinds of models and to express information in
different languages (figural, graphic, symbolic, and verbal) not only
helps in grasping the principles of elementary-level mathematics but
also develops in the student an understanding of the mathematical
method of learning about the world — mathematical modeling —
which conforms to the requirements of the educational standard
(http://standart.edu.ru/catalog.aspx?CatalogId=531).
Accordingly, Alexandrova (2009) asks students not only to analyze
existing models but also to construct their own, or reconstruct mag-
nitudes from graphic and symbolic models (formulas). All textbooks
use diagrams (circles, squares), diagram drawings, and tables to model
relationships between magnitudes. Rudnitskaya and Yudacheva (2009)
use graphs. Virtually all textbooks make extensive use of modeling
when dealing with arithmetical problems.
7.2.8
Working with data
The “second-generation” educational standard introduces a new topic:
“Working with data.” As of now, it does not yet appear in every
textbook. According to the standard, a student must be able to
read simple worksheets and fill them in with data, and read simple
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bar charts. A graduating student must have had the opportunity to
learn to read simple pie charts and to complete bar charts; recognize
identical information presented in a different form; gather and present
information in the form of worksheets and diagrams; and interpret
information gathered through basic research (explain, compare, and
generalize data; draw conclusions and make predictions).
All curriculum “complexes” include some type of assignments
involving worksheets; several textbooks (Chekin, 2009; Demidova,
2009; Ivashova et al., 2009; Peterson, 2009) have introduced extensive
data analysis, including work with diagrams, such as:
Use the information in the following diagram to compose and solve
a problem with comparison (Chekin, 2009):
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Concerning computer literacy for elementary school pupils, as
outlined in the educational standard, let us note that grades 4 and
5 study “Informatics” as a separate subject, and that various types
of computer-based study supplements — both topic-specific and
more general — have been developed and are currently in use. The
author of the present chapter is responsible for the mathematical
component of the integrated learning “complex” — “Discovering the
Laws of Language, Mathematics and Nature” — for grades 1–4. The
materials have been evaluated by experts in a variety of disciplines and
subsequently made available online through the Consolidated Digital
Educational Resources of the RF Ministry of Education (http://
school-collection.edu.ru/catalog/pupil/?class=42). The integrated
“complex” may be used with any of the existing curricula, but naturally
its general approach matches that of Ivashova et al. (2009). In addition
to testing materials, the online “complex” may be used to find new
information and consolidate previously acquired skills. Other textbooks
offer supplemental exercise CD-Roms or online components (e.g.
http://soft.mail.ru/download_page.php? id=413226 &grp=63164).
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