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the students, who have by now developed certain stereotypical notions
about the learning process, but often even for the teacher.
Let us examine a solution strategy for a problem from Mathematics
5 (Dorofeev and Sharygin, 2001) found in the teacher’s guide for the
textbook (Suvorova et al., 2001, p. 92):
Using personal experience, evaluate the chances of the following
random events and determine which would be the most probable:
(a) No one will call you between 5 am and 6 am;
(b) Someone will call you between 5 am and 6 am;
(c) Someone will call you between 6 pm and 9 pm;
(d) No one will call you between 6 pm and 9 pm.
Problems of this sort expose your students to general statistical
patterns as well as to personal peculiarities, which will result in
differences of individual answers to the same question. Because phone
calls are generally rare early in the morning, chances of (b) are
extremely low, it has negligible probability — a practically impossible
event; whereas (a) is highly likely — it is practically a fact. The evening
hours are, on the contrary, a time of high “telephone activity”; thus,
for most people, option (c) will be more probable than option (d);
although if a person generally receives very few phone calls, (d) may
turn out to be more probable than (c).
As has been said already, one of the main features of the adopted
methodology is the statistical approach to the concept of probability,
as the most immediate and grounded in the students’ experience. The
probability of a random event is evaluated with respect to its relative
frequency, which is derived from empirical data. This approach requires
students to gather the necessary data as part of the learning process.
Moreover, to stabilize frequency, an experiment must be repeated a
sufficiently high number of times.
The staging and conducting of experiments is an integral part of
solving problems in probability. At the first stage, these are actual
experiments with real objects. At later stages, students are expected
to model experiments with random outcomes using a computer.
Real-world application is likewise the leading aspect of the sta-
tistical component. To illustrate this, let us examine two sample
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
problems/mini-investigations from the textbook Mathematics 9
(Dorofeev, 2000, p. 308):
1. It is known that “o” is the most commonly used vowel in the
Russian language. Read over the following excerpt from the
poem The Bronze Horseman, by Alexander Pushkin [a commonly
anthologized excerpt, beginning with the lines “Upon the shores
of desolate tides ….”].
(a) Does this excerpt confirm the claim made at the start of the
problem?
(b) Compare the relative frequency of the [cyrillic] letters “y” and
“u” in this poem.
(c) Construct a diagram showing the relative frequencies of all
vowels appearing in this excerpt.
2. A television station has conducted a poll among young people in
order to determine typical viewing times. A total of 1000 people
participated in the survey. The correlation between time of day
and number of viewers is shown in the histogram (Fig. 1).
(a) At what times does the number of viewers exceed 500? The
total period of time when viewership exceeds 500 makes up
what percentage of the total broadcast time?
(b) How many people on average watch television for over an
hour between the hours of 4 pm and 7 pm? What percentage
of the total number of participants do they make up?
(c) Determine the average number of viewers per hour.
The most important, most obvious, and sometimes the only possible
means of solving a problem in probability and statistics is a computer.
The following sample problems may serve to illustrate this point
(Bunimovich and Bulychev, 2004):
1. Two people take turns tossing a coin: the first person to get
“heads” wins. Evaluate the probability of victory for the first and
the second player. To this end, conduct several experiments (as
many as you think necessary), using (a) a table of random numbers,
(b) a computer.
2. A pencil lead is arbitrarily broken into three pieces. What is the
probability that these fragments will be able to form a triangle?
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Fig. 1.
Find the answer through random modeling using (a) a table of
random numbers, (b) a computer.
3. Eight passengers are riding in a bus that must make 10 stops.
Each passenger has an equal chance of getting off at any one of
the stops. Model a series of routes for such a bus using (a) a table of
random numbers, (b) a computer. Use your model to determine
the probability of the following events:
A
= {all passengers get off at different stops};
B
= {all passengers will get off at the same stop};
C
= {somebody will get off at the fifth stop};
D
= {nobody will get off at the fifth stop};
E
= {somebody will get off at the first stop}.
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