2
Who Participates in the Class and Where Classes
Are Conducted: Background
To provide a better understanding of the specific character of Russian
classes, we must describe certain important features of the way in which
the teaching process has been organized in Russia, both traditionally
and at the present time.
2.1
Teachers and Students
Perhaps the most important difference between the teaching of
mathematics in Russia and, say, in the United States is the fact that
usually a teacher works with the same class for a considerable length of
time — the composition of the class virtually does not change, and the
class continues to have the same teacher. Instruction is broken down
not into different courses that the students can take, but simply into
different years of schooling — in fifth grade everyone studies specific
topics, and in sixth grade everyone moves on to other topics. A teacher
can be assigned to a fifth-grade classroom and, in principle, remain
with the students until their graduation (note that in Russia there is no
distinction between middle and high school in the sense that students
of all ages study in the same building, have the same principal, and
so on).
One of the authors of this chapter, for example, had the same
mathematics teacher during all of his years in school, from fifth
grade until his final year (which, at the time, was tenth grade). The
composition of the class did not change much either. Of course,
there were “new kids” who would come from other schools, usually
because their families had moved. And, of course, some students left,
usually again because their families moved or (very few) because they
transferred to less demanding schools (such transfers often took place
after students completed what today is called the basic school, which at
that time ended with eighth grade — students would then transfer to
vocational schools, for example). However, the overwhelming majority
of the class remained together from first grade until tenth grade.
Today, while the mobility of the population is somewhat greater, it
may be confidently asserted that in an ordinary school the students in
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4
Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
a class usually know one another for at least several years. Moreover,
although it is now less common for the same teacher to take a class from
beginning to end, a teacher will still usually remain with the same class
for at least a few years. Naturally, it would not be difficult to point out
certain shortcomings of this system, in which the image of the teacher
can almost be equated with the image of mathematics — and this is
hardly a good thing, particularly if the teacher is not a good teacher.
At the same time, certain advantages of this system remain evident:
teachers know their classes well, and the classes have time to become
accustomed to their teachers’ demands; long-term planning in the full
sense of the word is feasible, as teachers themselves prepare students
for what they will teach in the future. Moreover, such a system in some
measure makes the results of a teacher’s work more obvious: it would
be wrong always to blame the teacher for a poorly prepared class, but at
the same time it would definitely be impossible to blame other teachers
because, in short, there were no other teachers.
The required number of students in a class has decreased as the
Russian school system has developed. If a class in the 1960s had 35–40
students, now, as a rule, it consists of 25–30 students (here, we are
not considering the so-called schools with low numbers of students:
a distinctive phenomenon in Russia, where given the existence of tiny
villages scattered at great distances from one another it was necessary —
and here and there remains necessary — to maintain small schools
whose classes could have as few as two or three students).
Elementary school students have the same teacher for all subjects
(with the exception of special subjects such as music and art). Teachers
of elementary school classes are prepared by special departments
at pedagogical institutes and universities as well as special teachers’
colleges. The main problem with classes in the teaching of mathematics
in elementary school is that not all teachers will have devoted sufficient
time to studying mathematics in their past school or college experience,
not all teachers regard this subject with interest, and not all teachers
have a feeling for its unique character and methodology. The teaching
of mathematics can therefore turn into rote learning of techniques,
rules, or models for writing down solutions, thereby fostering negative
reactions in children between the ages of 7 and 10 and suggesting to
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