2
General Assessment Issues
2.1
What Is Assessed and Why?
The introduction to a collection of articles edited by the well-
known psychologist Yakimanskaya (1990) points out that assessments
are conducted in schools “based mainly on the final outcomes of
knowledge acquisition…. Knowledge is assessed mainly by evaluating
acquisition at three levels: by asking students to reproduce knowledge
that has been learned, to apply it based on a given model, and to use it in
a new, nonstandard situation” (p. 3).
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However, this taxonomy, which
resembles that of Bloom (1956), seemed insufficient to the authors of
the collection: “Such a system of criteria fails to take into account
the psychological nature of knowledge acquisition, the process of
knowledge formation; it leads to a rupture between the characteristics
of the knowledge that students ultimately acquire and the process
of its acquisition” (p. 3). Instead, the authors suggest, “assessment
must reflect the process side of knowledge acquisition” (Shiryaeva,
1990; p. 93). Moreover, Shiryaeva explains that even when the subject
being discussed is testing students’ knowledge acquisition, it should
be borne in mind that students acquire knowledge of a particular
type; namely, she writes (quoting Yakimanskaya, 1985), “[knowledge]
about the substance and sequence of mental actions (operations) whose
implementation facilitates the acquisition of scientific knowledge about
a domain-specific reality” (p. 17).
Constructing a system for the objective assessment of the individual
process of learning mathematics — or a system for evaluating the
formation of methods of scientific cognition — is an alluring but highly
problematic task. Yet there exists a contrary and popular tendency to
make assessment something far more concrete, for example by using
such assessment tools as problem sets of minimal (so-called mandatory)
and higher levels, with the provision that the “orientational contents
of the minimal-level problems included in these sets … must be open
for all participants in the educational process” (Dorofeev et al., 2000;
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This and subsequent translations from Russian are by Alexander Karp.
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p. 41) — in other words, that students be informed prior to taking a
test what kinds of minimal-level problems will appear on it. The critics
of this approach believe that this would merely steer the vast majority of
students toward rote learning, the pointlessness of which is augmented
in their opinion by the fact that the value of isolated, highly specific skills
in mathematics can, in view of the current technological development,
be put in question.
The issues raised above are at the heart of current debates about
reforming the system of exams, which will be discussed below. How-
ever, they are not new. A teacher ideally aims to take into account
everything: the proficiency that a student ultimately achieves in solving
concrete problems, the extent of the student’s acquisition of general
intellectual skills, and the manner in which the learning process unfolds.
Temerbekova (2003) identified the following functions of
assessment:
• Monitoring and diagnostic functions;
• Educational functions (since students undergoing monitoring have
a chance, for example, to systematize their knowledge);
• Stimulative functions (since assessment, generally speaking, facili-
tates the development of students’ learning activity);
• Formative functions (since, once again generally speaking, moni-
toring facilitates the development of a sense of responsibility);
• Prognostic functions (monitoring may be used as a basis for arriving
at some kind of prognosis about the development of a student’s
education, and thus also as a basis for taking corrective measures if
necessary).
To these functions may be added that assessment also dictates the
school curriculum, and although it does so in a condensed fashion, its
impact is considerable. Teachers teach that which will later be tested.
It is not difficult to recall, for example, that such a part of the school
course in mathematics — as the elimination of extraneous solutions
that lie outside the domain of the functions being examined — has
assumed completely disproportionate importance in the teaching of
mathematics, despite not being prescribed by any program (Boltyansky,
2009). This came about because problems associated with this idea
often appeared on exams. Today, the format of problems on the
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Uniform State Exam (USE) is the subject of heated debates precisely
because new types of problems will exert an unavoidable influence on
the school course in mathematics.
Without going into further details here, let us merely emphasize
that assessment can also have a destructive influence, pushing students
away from mathematics and accustoming them to irresponsibility and
even dishonesty. This fact makes the task of the teacher in conducting
assessments all the more difficult and important.
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