Pernilla Hallonsten Halling

llye’yum

quickly

we-sip-ch
3-be.extinguished-ss
tiinyam
be.night
adv

‘When it is winter, the day is quickly gone and it is night.’

2. 
   mu’yuu
   

why
lyepaay

softly

me-kwerkwar-a

2. 
   talk-q
   

adv

‘Why are you whispering (lit. talking softly)?’

As in Jamul Tiipay, Guaraní (Tupian) has Stative Verbs in attr and pred, uninflected in the former, but inflected in the latter.

(5.7) Guaraní (Tupian) (Gregores & Suárez 1967: 148, 172)

1. 
   aópot^´˜ı
   

clothes clean
‘clean clothes’

attr

2. 
   i-pot˜^´ı-má
   
2. 
   be.clean-thoroughly
   

mã
already
la
art
ne-platíllo
2sg-plate
pred

‘your plate is thoroughly clean already’
Guaraní also has a number of simple Adverbs, which Gregores & Suárez (1967: 135) describe as the third major part of speech. However, it is unclear exactly how many Adverbs there are, and the class includes many non-property-denoting items (1967: 140). Two examples are p1aPé ‘fast’ and ra^´˜e ‘formerly’. One example with context is provided in (5.8).

(5.8) Guaraní (Tupian) (Gregores & Suárez 1967: 176)

né
2sg
p1aPè

fast

tereí
very
re-yeP´˜e
2sg-speak
adv

‘you speak very fast’

All the languages that have simple adverbs but lack simple adjectives are listed in table

5.4. A map of all the languages with adverbs, distinguishing the languages with adjectives from the ones without them, is presented in figure 5.2.

Table 5.4. Languages with simple adverbs but without simple adjectives

Ainu (isolate) Koasati (Muskogean) Gooniyandi (Bunaban) Koyra Chiini (Songhay) Guaraní (Tupian) Krongo (Kadugli-Krongo) Jamul Tiipay (Cochimi-Yuman) Lakota (Siouan)

Kambera (Austronesian) Nishnaabemwin (Algic) Kalaallisut (Eskimo-Aleut) Warekena (Arawakan)
Interestingly, a few of my sample languages overlap with a few of the sample languages of Hengeveld (1992), with contrary analyses. Hengeveld (1992: 69–70) analyzes Bambara (Mande), Kalaallisut (Eskimo-Aleut), Krongo (Kadugli-Krongo), and Turkish (Turkish) as lacking adverbs, while I have concluded that they have simple adverbs. The three former languages could have been analyzed differently since they have very few simple adverbs, which could be seen as exceptions, or as providing too little evidence to constitute a class. In my analysis, having simple adverbs does not depend on the amount of adverbs, but on whether they are attested at all. Hengeveld (1992: 70) analyzes Turkish as a flexible language with a class of items that may be used both adjectivally and adverbially (potentially including nouns as well). Contrary to this, I have classified some of the Turkish property words as simple adverbs, since they appear to have primary usage as

simple adverbs, no adjectives no simple adverbs
simple adverbs and adjectives

Figure 5.2. Presence and absence of adjectives in sample languages with simple adverbs

adverbs (Hatice Zora, p.c.). Abkhaz (Northwest Caucasian) and Basque (isolate) are analyzed as having adverbs by Hengeveld (1992: 70), but not by me. But Hengeveld includes derived adverbs in his analysis, which may explain this difference. The encoding found in these two languages is discussed in sections 5.3.1 and 5.3.2 below.

In this section, the sample languages with simple adverbs have been presented (see map in figure 5.1). Examples have been given that illustrate that the size of the simple adverb class varies from comparatively large (Mian), to fairly small (Krongo), to just a pair of adverbs (Koyra Chiini), even down to one adverb candidate (Estonian). The languages with simple adverbs but without adjectives were given particular attention (see map in figure 5.2) and were illustrated with examples from two languages (Guaraní and Jamul Tiipay). These data manifest that there are simple adverbs in a substantial number of unrelated languages from around the world. Moreover, a substantial number of the languages with simple adverbs do not have simple adjectives. These languages are also unrelated and geographically distant. It is thus clear that it is not necessary for a language to have adjectives in order to have adverbs, and that the two are not conceptually dependent on each other. In the next section, I will turn to other types of encoding attested in adv.

3.