vary both within a discipline and over time, and there are obviously
different methods of practice in what I have rather sweepingly referred
to as ‘science’. Swales’ (1981, 1990) analysis of research article introduc-
tions focused on the sciences and social sciences, and found broadly
similar discourse patterns. However, Connor (1996: 40, 134) reviews
research which suggests that corresponding disciplines in different
national cultures employ variations of Swales’ model; furthermore, a
cursory analysis of research articles in the humanities shows very
different introductory styles. The differing patterns of communication
across the humanities and sciences are discussed in Becher (1989).
Given that little detailed work has so far been accomplished on describ-
ing texts in relation to whether they are the products of close-knit or
loosely-knit discourse communities, it is up to the materials designer
and the teacher to select texts appropriate to their students’ goals and
linguistic level. An ‘intercultural’ perspective on texts produced by a
subcultural group (whether scientists, business people, football fans,
or followers of a musical fashion) involves the ‘triangulation’ of texts
according to whether they are produced by the subculture for wider
consumption, by the subculture for peer-group consumption, or by
‘outsiders’ about the subculture. Given the potential for ‘lurking’ on
electronic discussion groups (i.e. registering in order to see what
members write, but never actually contributing to any discussion), it is
now probably easier than ever to gather data in order to triangulate
perceptions of discourse communities in this way. As suggested
earlier, youth subcultures such as ‘skinheads’ or ‘goths’, which can be
characterised partly through fashion options and music choice, will
often post websites to celebrate or negotiate their identities among
themselves, but also to show a ‘public face’ to the world. The ideologies
and values of the subculture will be negotiated largely between
members of the subculture through media such as specialised fanzines
or electronic discussion groups. Meanwhile, the press and other mass
media will characterise the members from the perspective of the wider
community. Texts from all three points of the triangle are necessary if a
wider understanding of the discourse community and its textual
products is to be achieved.
Clearly, work on genre and the nature of discourse communities calls
into question the very labels ‘general English’ and ‘English for Specific
Purposes’ (ESP). The former has always been a vacuous expression, no
doubt coined as a response to the rise in popularity of ESP. It may in fact be
better to rethink texts (especially written ones) as always being for ‘specific
purposes’, and characterised by their functions in different types of
discourse community. The modes of writing usually characterised as ESP
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(namely, essays, articles, business letters, reports, etc.) can be viewed as the
products of well-defined discourse communities in which those people
reading are likely also to be those people writing publicly sanctioned text-
types. The modes of writing sometimes characterised as ‘general’ English
(journals and diaries, personal letters, reflective writing, and so forth) can
be considered as the products of more diffuse communities whose mem-
bership and goals are less easily defined. Diaries, after all, may be written
primarily for oneself, but learner diaries are also written for the teacher,
and a politician’s diary might always be written with future publication,
and public self-justification, in mind. Furthermore, ‘personal’ letters might
be written with a strictly limited readership in mind, for the purpose of
simply maintaining social contact with family or friends – to this extent
such letters have goals, and possibly content, that is similar to speech
genres (cf. Chapter 3 on the cultural functions of gossip and story-telling).
Even so, such letters might eventually find a larger readership than origi-
nally intended – they might be passed around the family, and, in special
cases, might even be published. From this perspective, it is clear that there
is no such thing as ‘general’ English: there are only texts that serve different
kinds of functions for individuals variously positioned in different kinds of
discourse community.
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