EPILOGUE
A Jamaican Story
“IF A PROGENY OF YOUNG COLORED CHILDREN IS BROUGHT FORTH, THESE ARE EMANCIPATED.”
1.
On September 9, 1931, a young woman named Daisy Nation gave birth to twin girls. She and her
husband, Donald, were schoolteachers in a tiny village called Harewood, in the central Jamaican
parish of Saint Catherine’s. They named their daughters Faith and Joyce. When Donald was told that
he had fathered twins, he sank down on his knees and surrendered responsibility for their lives over
to God.
The Nations lived in a small cottage on the grounds of Harewood’s Anglican church. The
schoolhouse was next door, a long, single-room barn of a building raised on concrete stilts. On some
days, there might be as many as three hundred children in the room, and on others, less than two
dozen. The children would read out loud or recite their times tables. Writing was done on slates.
Whenever possible, the classes would move outside, under the mango trees. If the children were out
of control, Donald Nation would walk from one end of the room to the other, waving a strap from left
to right as the children scrambled back to their places.
He was an imposing man, quiet and dignified, and a great lover of books. In his small library were
works of poetry and philosophy and novels by such writers as Somerset Maugham. Every day he
would read the newspaper closely, following the course of the events around the world. In the
evening, his best friend, Archdeacon Hay, the Anglican pastor who lived on the other side of the hill,
would come over and sit on Donald’s veranda, and together they would expound on the problems of
Jamaica. Donald’s wife, Daisy, was from the parish of Saint Elizabeth. Her maiden name was Ford,
and her father had owned a small grocery store. She was one of three sisters, and she was renowned
for her beauty.
At the age of eleven, the twins won scholarships to a boarding school called Saint Hilda’s near
the north coast. It was an old Anglican private school, established for the daughters of English clergy,
property owners, and overseers. From Saint Hilda’s they applied and were accepted to University
College, in London. Not long afterward, Joyce went to a twenty-first-birthday party for a young
English mathematician named Graham. He stood up to recite a poem and forgot his lines, and Joyce
became embarrassed for him—even though it made no sense for her to feel embarrassed, because she
did not know him at all. Joyce and Graham fell in love and got married. They moved to Canada.
Graham was a math professor. Joyce became a successful writer and a family therapist. They had
three sons and built a beautiful house on a hill, off in the countryside. Graham’s last name is
Gladwell. He is my father, and Joyce Gladwell is my mother.
2.
That is the story of my mother’s path to success—and it isn’t true. It’s not a lie in the sense that the
facts were made up. But it is false in the way that telling the story of Bill Gates without mentioning
the computer at Lakeside is false, or accounting for Asian math prowess without going back to the
rice paddies is false. It leaves out my mother’s many opportunities and the importance of her cultural
legacy.
In 1935, for example, when my mother and her sister were four, a historian named William M.
MacMillan visited Jamaica. He was a professor at the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg,
South Africa. MacMillan was a man before his time: he was deeply concerned with the social
problems of South Africa’s black population, and he came to the Caribbean to make the same
argument he had made back home in South Africa.
Chief among MacMillan’s concerns was Jamaica’s educational system. Formal schooling—if you
could call what happened in the wooden barn next door to my grandparents’ house “formal
schooling”—went only to fourteen years of age. Jamaica had no public high schools or universities.
Those with academic inclinations took extra classes with the head teacher in their teenage years and
with luck made it into teachers’ college. Those with broader ambitions had to somehow find their
way into a private school, and from there to a university in the United States or England.
But scholarships were few and far between, and the cost of private schooling was prohibitive for
all but a privileged few. The “bridge from the primary schools” to high school, MacMillan later
wrote, in a blistering critique of England’s treatment of its colonies entitled Warning from the West
Indies, “is narrow and insecure.” The school system did nothing for the “humblest” classes. He went
on: “If anything these schools are a factor deepening and sharpening social distinctions.” If the
government did not give its people opportunities, he warned, there would be trouble.
A year after MacMillan published his book, a wave of riots and unrest swept the Caribbean.
Fourteen people were killed and fifty-nine injured in Trinidad. Fourteen were killed and forty-seven
injured in Barbados. In Jamaica, a series of violent strikes shut down the country, and a state of
emergency was declared. Panicked, the British government took MacMillan’s prescriptions to heart
and, among other reforms, proposed a series of “all-island” scholarships for academically minded
students to go to private high schools. The scholarships began in 1941. My mother and her twin sister
sat for the exam the following year. That is how they got a high school education; had they been born
two or three or four years earlier, they might never have gotten a full education. My mother owes the
course her life took to the timing of her birth, to the rioters of 1937, and to W. M. MacMillan.
I described Daisy Nation, my grandmother, as “renowned for her beauty.” But the truth is that was
a careless and condescending way to describe her. She was a force. The fact that my mother and her
sister left Harewood for Saint Hilda’s was my grandmother’s doing. My grandfather may have been
an imposing and learned man, but he was an idealist and a dreamer. He buried himself in his books. If
he had ambitions for his daughters, he did not have the foresight and energy to make them real. My
grandmother did. Saint Hilda’s was her idea: some of the wealthier families in the area sent their
daughters there, and she saw what a good school meant. Her daughters did not play with the other
children of the village. They read. Latin and algebra were necessary for high school, so she had her
daughters tutored by Archdeacon Hay.
“If you’d asked her about her goals for her children, she would have said she wanted us out of
there,” my mother recalls. “She didn’t feel that the Jamaican context offered enough. And if the
opportunity was there to go on, and you were able to take it, then to her the sky was the limit.”
When the results came back from the scholarship exam, only my aunt was awarded a scholarship.
My mother was not. That’s another fact that my first history was careless about. My mother
remembers her parents standing in the doorway, talking to each other. “We have no more money.”
They had paid the tuition for the first term and bought the uniforms and had exhausted their savings.
What would they do when the second-term fees for my mother came due? But then again, they couldn’t
send one daughter and not the other. My grandmother was steadfast. She sent both—and prayed—and
at the end of the first term, it turned out that one of the other girls at the school had won two
scholarships, so the second was given to my mother.
When it came time to go to university, my aunt, the academic twin, won what was called a
Centenary Scholarship. The “Centenary” was a reference to the fact that the scholarship was
established one hundred years after the abolition of slavery in Jamaica. It was reserved for the
graduates of public elementary schools, and, in a measure of how deeply the British felt about
honoring the memory of abolition, there was a total of one Centenary scholarship awarded every year
for the whole island, with the prize going to the top girl and the top boy in alternating years. The year
my aunt applied was one of the “girl” years. She was lucky. My mother was not. My mother was
faced with the cost of passage to England, room and board and living expenses, and tuition at the
University of London. To get a sense of how daunting that figure was, the value of the Centenary
scholarship my aunt won was probably as much as the sum of my grandparents’ annual salaries. There
were no student loan programs, no banks with lines of credit for schoolteachers out in the
countryside. “If I’d asked my father,” my mother says, “he would have replied, ‘We have no money.’ ”
What did Daisy do? She went to the Chinese shopkeeper in a neighboring town. Jamaica has a
very large Chinese population that since the nineteenth century has dominated the commercial life of
the island. In Jamaican parlance, a store is not a store, it is a “Chinee-shop.” Daisy went to the
“Chinee-shop,” to Mr. Chance, and borrowed the money. No one knows how much she borrowed,
although it must have been an enormous sum. And no one knows why Mr. Chance lent it to Daisy,
except of course that she was Daisy Nation, and she paid her bills promptly and had taught the Chance
children at Harewood School. It was not always easy to be a Chinese child in a Jamaican schoolyard.
The Jamaican children would taunt the Chinese children. “Chinee nyan [eat] dog.” Daisy was a
kindly and beloved figure, an oasis amid that hostility. Mr. Chance may have felt in her debt.
“Did she tell me what she was doing? I didn’t even ask her,” my mother remembers. “It just
occurred. I just applied to university and got in. I acted completely on faith that I could rely on my
mother, without even realizing that I was relying on my mother.”
Joyce Gladwell owes her college education first to W. M. MacMillan, and then to the student at
Saint Hilda’s who gave up her scholarship, and then to Mr. Chance, and then, most of all, to Daisy
Nation.
3.
Daisy Nation was from the northwestern end of Jamaica. Her great-grandfather was William Ford. He
was from Ireland, and he arrived in Jamaica in 1784 having bought a coffee plantation. Not long after
his arrival, he bought a slave woman and took her as his concubine. He noticed her on the docks at
Alligator Pond, a fishing village on the south coast. She was an Igbo tribeswoman from West Africa.
They had a son, whom they named John. He was, in the language of the day, a “mulatto”; he was
colored—and all of the Fords from that point on fell into Jamaica’s colored class.
In the American South during that same period, it would have been highly unusual for a white
landowner to have such a public relationship with a slave. Sexual relations between whites and
blacks were considered morally repugnant. Laws were passed prohibiting miscegenation, the last of
which were not struck down by the US Supreme Court until 1967. A plantation owner who lived
openly with a slave woman would have been socially ostracized, and any offspring from the union of
black and white would have been left in slavery.
In Jamaica, attitudes were very different. The Caribbean in those years was little more than a
massive slave colony. Blacks outnumbered whites by a ratio of more than ten to one. There were few,
if any, marriageable white women, and as a result, the overwhelming majority of white men in the
West Indies had black or brown mistresses. One British plantation owner in Jamaica who famously
kept a precise diary of his sexual exploits slept with 138 different women in his thirty-seven years on
the island, almost all of them slaves and, one suspects, not all of them willing partners. And whites
saw mulattoes—the children of those relationships—as potential allies, a buffer between them and
the enormous numbers of slaves on the island. Mulatto women were prized as mistresses, and their
children, one shade lighter in turn, moved still further up the social and economic ladder. Mulattoes
rarely worked in the fields. They lived the much easier life of working in the “house.” They were the
ones most likely to be freed. So many mulatto mistresses were left substantial fortunes in the wills of
white property owners that the Jamaica legislature once passed a law capping bequests at two
thousand pounds (which, at the time, was an enormous sum).
“When a European arrives in the West Indies and gets settled or set down for any length of time,
he finds it necessary to provide himself with a housekeeper or mistress,” one eighteenth-century
observer wrote. “The choice he has an opportunity of making is various, a black, a tawney, a mulatto
or a mestee, one of which can be purchased for 100 or 150 sterling…. If a progeny of young colored
children is brought forth, these are emancipated, and mostly sent by those fathers who can afford it, at
the age of three or four years, to be educated in England.”
This is the world Daisy’s grandfather John was born into. He was one generation removed from a
slave ship, living in a country best described as an African penal colony, and he was a free man, with
every benefit of education. He married another mulatto, a woman who was half European and half
Arawak, which is the Indian tribe indigenous to Jamaica, and had seven children.
“These people—the coloreds—had a lot of status,” the Jamaican sociologist Orlando Patterson
says. “By eighteen twenty-six, they had full civil liberties. In fact, they achieve full civil liberties at
the same time as the Jews do in Jamaica. They could vote. Do anything a white person could do—and
this is within the context of what was still a slave society.
“Ideally, they would try to be artisans. Remember, Jamaica has sugar plantations, which are very
different from the cotton plantations you find in the American South. Cotton is a predominantly
agricultural pursuit. You are picking this stuff, and almost all of the processing was done in
Lancashire, or the North. Sugar is an agro-industrial complex. You have to have the factory right
there, because sugar starts losing sucrose within hours of being picked. You had no choice but to have
the sugar mill right there, and sugar mills require a wide range of occupations. The coopers. The
boiler men. The carpenters—and a lot of those jobs were filled by colored people.”
It was also the case that Jamaica’s English elite, unlike their counterparts in the United States, had
little interest in the grand project of nation building. They wanted to make their money and go back to
England. They had no desire to stay in what they considered a hostile land. So the task of building a
new society—with the many opportunities it embodied—fell to the coloreds as well.
“By eighteen fifty, the mayor of Kingston [the Jamaican capital] was a colored person,” Patterson
went on. “And so was the founder of the Daily Gleaner [Jamaica’s major newspaper]. These were
colored people, and from very early on, they came to dominate the professional classes. The whites
were involved in business or the plantation. The people who became doctors and lawyers were these
colored people. These were the people running the schools. The bishop of Kingston was a classic
brown man. They weren’t the economic elite. But they were the cultural elite.”
The chart below shows a breakdown of two categories of Jamaican professionals—lawyers and
members of parliament—in the early 1950s. The categorization is by skin tone. “White and light”
refers to people who are either entirely white or, more likely, who have some black heritage that is no
longer readily apparent. “Olive” is one step below that, and “light brown” one step below olive
(although the difference between those two shades might not be readily apparent to anyone but a
Jamaican). The fact to keep in mind is that in the 1950s “blacks” made up about 80 percent of the
Jamaican population, outnumbering coloreds five to one.
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