50 Key Concepts in Theology

The Rationality of Theism

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(Routledge, 2003)

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Theological Ethics
Ethics worked out from theological principles or revealed truths.
Religious people of all kinds have believed that they are in receipt of
special insights about how to live an ethical life. God is seen to impart laws,
wisdom, ethical principles, conscience or God’s own Spirit to enable us to
behave righteously.
A central dilemma in all ethics is how to reconcile the need ‘to do the
right thing’ (deontological ethics – see below) with the need ‘to bring about
the right consequences’ (consequentialist ethics – see below). On the one
hand, we would say, as a matter of principle, that it is not right to hurt another
human being. On the other hand, the surgeon who refused ever to hurt his
patients would cause more harm than good. So on one side we have the
application of principles, the need to fulfil duties, the requirements of law, and
the importance of proper motivation. And on the other side we have the need
to bring about good outcomes.
In the modern period Christian ethics has come under three main
influences. The first is the consequentialist ethics of the Enlightenment, which
had as its goal the creation of a better (or even a perfect) world-order.
Christian socialists, philanthropists, and social reformers argued that the task
of ethics was to be effective in building the New Jerusalem on earth. Good
intentions were all very well, but they believed that the churches had a
leading role to play in the improvement of society.
The second influence is the individualism of modern and post-modern
culture. This has produced an increasingly subjective and personalised ethical
vision, based upon the satisfaction of individual needs, preferences and
judgements. We now think of society in terms of individuals pursuing their
ends, rather than communities working out the rules and ethos of their
common life.
Thirdly, the modern period has been increasingly dominated by ethical
reasoning based on individual ‘rights’. The traditional Christian ethic of
responsibility for one’s neighbour has been largely replaced in public ethical
discussion by the question of how we fulfil our neighbour’s rights. So the
ethic of the Good Samaritan who was ‘moved’ to act by the plight of his
neighbour has evolved into a functional ethic that requires no real compassion
for others, so long as our neighbour’s entitlements to food, shelter and
medical care are met.
There have been a range of reactions to these cultural shifts. Liberal

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theologians have tended to see what is implicitly Christian in the ethics of
secular modernity, and have affirmed that. Karl Barth argued that all ethics
must be the application of divinely revealed principles, values and laws.
Alasdair MacIntyre, for example, has argued that we need to return to a
distinctively Christian ethic of virtue. We cannot base our ethics upon
calculations of the probable consequences of our actions. Rather, we should
strive after the virtues that St Paul lists in the New Testament: ‘The fruit of
the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness,
gentleness and self-control’ (Gal. 5:22–23).
More radical voices have urged us to move beyond theological ethics
altogether. Bishop Richard Holloway has advocated ‘godless morality’: ‘it is
better to leave God out of the moral debate’ and find ‘good human reasons’
for supporting our ethical viewpoints. Holloway argues that ethics is like
musical improvisation – we take the traditional Christian ethical tunes and
make new music out of them.
THINKERS
Aristotle (384–322 bc) was concerned with how to live a good life
(eudaimonia, the way of living leading to excellence). The good life depends