ent shades of attitudes toward the same stimuli (Eiser, 1987). Attitudes are
also socially grounded, that is, they must be experienced as related to sub-
jects or events in the external world. Attitude is intricately linked to lan-
guage learning processes and practices because, as pointed out in the
Routledge Encyclopedia
(2000), it “affects the learner not only with respect to
the processing of information and identification with people or groups, but
also with respect to motives and the relationship between language and cul-
ture, and their place within the existing linguistic and cultural diversity” (p.
57).
In addition to the individual’s personal dispositions, there are at least
two external forces that appear to shape the learner’s language-learning at-
titude: environmental and pedagogic. The environmental factor includes
social, cultural, political and economic imperatives that shape the L2 edu-
cational milieu, and is explained in section 2.3.6. The pedagogic factor
shapes how teachers, learners and the learning situation interact with each
other to trigger positive or negative attitudes in the learner. The teacher’s
curricular objectives, classroom activities and even personal attitudes play a
role in influencing the learner’s attitude to language learning (Malcolm,
1987). In fact, the teachers’ attitudes seem to have a greater influence on
L2 development than even parental or community-wide attitudes (Tucker
& Lambert, 1973). Similarly, as diary studies show, learners can hold nega-
tive attitudes toward the learning situation if there is a mismatch between
their and their teacher’s curricular objectives (Schumann & Schumann,
1977). It is in this context that Breen and Littlejohn (2000) advocated
shared decision-making based on meaningful “discussion between all mem-
bers of the classroom to decide how learning and teaching are to be orga-
nized” (p. 1).
Furthermore, learners’ attitude toward the speakers of the TL and its im-
pact on L2 development has been widely studied, resulting in conflicting
findings. Early experiments conducted by Gardner and his colleagues (see,
e.g., Gardner & Lambert, 1972) showed high correlation between learner’s
positive attitude toward the speakers of the TL and L2 development. Such a
strong claim has been questioned (Cooper & Fishman, 1977; Oller, Baca, &
Vigil, 1977). Later research, however, shows that although L2 learners
might develop a negative attitude toward the TL community because of cul-
tural or political reasons, a positive attitude toward the TL itself and its use-
fulness can contribute to L2 development (Berns, 1990). In sum, it is fair to
assume that a positive attitude to language learning is a necessary but not a
sufficient condition for success.
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