13.56
Analysis of Dynamic Circuits by Laplace Transforms
Solution (ii)
Figure 13.13-2 shows the pole-zero plot and frequency response function. The pole distance and the
pole angle are marked in Fig. 13.13-2. The zero distance is same as the excitation frequency value
w
and
the zero angle is 90
°
. Obviously, the gain magnitude goes to 1/
√
2 times the final gain when
w
=
a
and
the phase at that point is 45
°
. Therefore bandwidth is
a
rad/s and the function is a high-pass function.
| (
)
(
)
tan
H j
j
w
w
a
w
q w
p
w
a
=
+
=
−
−
2
2
1
2
and
rad
1.5
1
0.5
Phase
Gain
Gain
phase (rad)
2
α
3
α
4
α
α
ω
1 2
Re(
s
)
Im(
s
)
j
ω
tan
−
1
( / )
α
ω
–
x
α
( + )
2
α
2
ω
ω
90°
Fig. 13.13-2
Gain and phase plots of
H
(
s
) =
s
/(
s
+
a
)
example: 13.13-2
The biquadratic
network function
H s
as
bs c
s
s
n
n
( )
=
+ +
+
+
2
2
2
2
x
w
w
is a second-order low-pass function if
a
=
0,
b
=
0 and
c
=
w
n
2
. It is a second-order high-pass function if
a
=
1 and
b
=
c
=
0. It is a band-pass
function if
a
=
c
=
0 and
b
=
2
xw
n
and it is a band-reject function if
a
=
1,
b
=
0 and
c
=
w
n
2
. The frequency
response function for low-pass, high-pass and band-pass second-order functions were studied in detail
in Section 11.11 in Chapter 11 in the context of frequency response of Series
RLC
circuit.
Consider the band-pass function and band-reject function and sketch their frequency response plots
for
x
<< 1.
Solution
The poles of the function are at
s
j
n
n
= −
±
−
xw
x w
1
2
. Let us consider the band-pass function first.
H s
s
s
s
n
n
n
( )
=
+
+
2
2
2
2
xw
xw
w
The
zero of this function is at
s
=
0.
The distance of the pole at
s
j
n
n
= −
+
−
xw
x w
1
2
to the excitation frequency point
j
w
is denoted
by
d
1
and the distance of the pole at
s
j
n
n
= −
−
−
xw
x w
1
2
to
j
w
is
d
2
. The distance of zero at
s
=
0
to
j
w
is
w
itself. The pole angles
q
1
and
q
2
are also shown in the pole-zero diagram in Fig. 13.13-3.
Sinusoidal Steady-State Frequency Response from Pole-Zero Plots
13.57
The magnitude function then is 2
xw
n
w
/(
d
1
d
2
) and the phase function is (
p
/2)
-
(
q
1
+
q
2
). The
distances
d
1
and
d
2
are equal to
w
n
at
w
=
0 and the sum of the angles
q
1
and
q
2
at that frequency is
360
°
. Therefore, the gain at zero frequency is 0 (due to the zero-distance of zero) and angle is 90
°
. As
w
→
∞
, all the three distances go to
∞
and hence magnitude goes to zero.
q
1
and
q
2
go to 90
°
as
w
→
∞
and hence the phase angle of frequency response function goes to –90
°
as
w
→
∞
.
As
w
increases from 0, the distance
d
1
decreases and the distances
d
2
and
d
3
increase. Consider
a pair of
w
values equal to
[ (
)
]
1
2
-
-
x
x w
n
and
[ (
)
]
1
2
−
+
x
x w
n
i.e.,
two
w
values separated by
±
real part of the pole from the imaginary part of the pole. The distance
d
1
undergoes
a variation
from 2
xw
n
to
xw
n
and again to 2
xw
n
as
w
varies from
[ (
)
]
1
2
-
-
x
x w
n
to
[ (
)
]
1
2
−
+
x
x w
n
passing through the point
[ (
)]
1
2
-
x w
n
. The distances
d
2
and
d
3
also vary. However, if
x
<< 1, the
variation in these two quantities will be negligible over this frequency range and approximation
d
d
n
n
2
2
3
2 1
≈
−
≈
(
)
x w
w
and
will be satisfactory.
Therefore,
the
magnitude
of
frequency
response
function
will
vary
from
2
2 2
1
1
2
2
xw w
xw
x w
n
n
n
n
÷
−
≈
(
)
/
to
2
2 1
1
2
xw w
xw
x w
n
n
n
n
÷
×
−
≈
(
)
and again to
1
2
/
as
w
varies from
[ (
)
]
1
2
-
-
x
x w
n
to
[ (
)
]
1
2
−
+
x
x w
n
passing through the point
[ (
)]
1
2
-
x w
n
. The
imaginary part of poles can be taken as approximately
w
n
itself for
x
<< 1. Therefore, the maximum
gain is 1 at
w
=
w
n
and gain goes through
1
2
/
at
w
x w
1 2
1
,
(
)
=
∓
n
. The phase angle at
w
=
w
n
is zero.
See Fig. 13.13-3.
0.4
Gain
0.707
(rad/s)
0.2
0.6
0.8
1
1
ω
ω
2
ω
n
ω
Phase (rad)
45°
–45°
(rad/s)
0.5
–1
1.5
0.5
1
1.5
ω
n
ω
x
1
θ
2
θ
d
1
d
2
d
3
Im(
s
)
x
Re(
s
)
90°
j
ω
j
1 –
n
2
ω
ξ
–
n
ω
ξ
j
1 –
n
2
ω
ξ
Fig. 13.13-3
Pole-zero plot and frequency response plot for
a second order band-pass
function
The center frequency of the narrow band-pass function is seen to be
≈
w
n
and the bandwidth is
≈
2
xw
n
. Thus the ratio of center frequency to bandwidth of a narrow band-pass second-order network
function is 1/2
x
or
Q
of the denominator polynomial.
Let us consider the band-reject function now.
H s
s
s
s
n
n
n
( )
=
+
+
+
2
2
2
2
2
w
xw
w
The poles are at
s
j
n
n
= −
±
−
xw
x w
1
2
and zeros are at
s
j
n
= ±
w
. The
distance of the pole at
s
j
n
n
= −
+
−
xw
x w
1
2
to the excitation frequency point
j
w
is denoted by
d
1
and the distance of the
pole at
s
j
n
n
= −
−
−
xw
x w
1
2
to
j
w
is
d
2
. The distance of zero at
s
j
n
=
w
to
j
w
is
d
3
and the distance
of zero at
s
j
n
= −
w
to
j
w
is
d
4
. The pole angles
q
1
and
q
2
are also shown in the pole-zero diagram in
13.58
Analysis of Dynamic Circuits by Laplace Transforms
Fig. 13.13-4. The zero-angles are –90
°
and 90
°
for all
w
<
w
n
and 90
°
and 90
°
for all
w
>
w
n
. The gain
is given by
d
3
d
4
/
d
1
d
2
and starts at 1 at
w
=
0 since
d
1
=
d
2
and
d
3
=
d
4
. The gain goes to 1 as
w
→
∞
since
d
1
≈
d
2
and
d
3
≈
d
4
under that condition. The gain is zero at
w
=
w
n
since
d
3
is zero under that
condition. Therefore, it is a band-reject function.
The pole-zero plots and frequency response plots are shown in Fig. 13.13-4. For
x
<< 1, it may be
shown that the gain crosses 1/
√
2 level at
w
x w
1 2
1
,
(
)
=
∓
n
and that the phase angles at those frequencies
are –45
°
and 45
°
. The centre frequency of the narrow band-reject function is seen to be
≈
w
n
and the
bandwidth is
≈
2
xw
n
. Thus the ratio of centre frequency to bandwidth of a narrow band-reject second
order network function is 1/2
x
or
Q
of the denominator polynomial.
x
1
θ
2
θ
d
1
d
3
d
2
d
4
x
Im(
s
)
Re(
s
)
90°
–90°
0.8
Gain
Phase (rad)
0.707
(
r
/
s
)
j
n
ω
–j
n
ω
–
n
ω
ξ
n
ω
ω
(
r
/
s
)
ω
1
ω
2
ω
j
ω
j
1 –
2
n
ω
ξ
1 –
2
n
ω
ξ
–j
1
0.6
0.4
0.2
–0.5
0.5
1
1.5
–1
–1.5
n
ω
1
ω
2
ω
Fig. 13.13-4
Pole-zero plot and frequency response plot for a second-order band-pass
function
The frequency response of higher order network functions can similarly be sketched. A higher
order
H
(
j
w
) can be expressed as the product of first-order factors and biquadratic factors. The
magnitude response for first-order factors and biquadratic factors may be sketched separately first and
then multiplied together to get the magnitude response curve of
H
(
j
w
). Phase curves will have to be
added.
Poles on negative real axis contribute a monotonically decreasing magnitude response.
Poles
close to
j
w
-axis render resonant peaks in magnitude response and zeros on
j
w
-axis produce zero
gain response at the excitation frequencies equal to the zero locations. Thus graphical interpretation
of frequency response function is a valuable aid to a circuit designer
who wants to locate
poles and zeros of a network function to tailor the frequency response function to meet design
specifications.
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