v
v
(
)
and the solution is v
1
=
2V and v
2
=
1V.
Now, the voltages across all the resistors and the current sources may be found by inspection.
Similarly, the currents through resistors can be found by applying Ohm’s law to them. Currents through
Fig. 4.3-2
Circuit in Fig. 4.3-1
with all independent
sources deactivated
1
2
v
1
v
2
3
R
2
1
Ω
1
Ω
0.5
Ω
R
1
R
4
R
5
R
3
R
6
0.2
Ω
0.5
Ω
0.2
Ω
R
Nodal Analysis of Circuits Containing Independent Voltage Sources
4.11
current sources are already known. What remains is the current in the voltage source. An extra step
has to be carried out for finding out the current in V
1
. This is the price that the voltage source demands
from us for fixing the node-3 potential for us!
The extra step involves applying KCL at node-3. Note that we did not use the KCL equation at
node-3 in the process of solving for node voltage variables. We use it now. All the other currents
leaving or entering node-3 are known. Only the current through V
1
is unknown. Hence, it can be found.
G V
v
G V
v
G V
I
i
V
3
1
1
5
1
2
6 1
3
1
0
2 3
(
)
(
)
(
−
+
−
+
− + =
−
Substituting values,
22
2 3 1
5 3 15
0
6
1
1
)
(
)
+
− + × − + =
∴ = −
i
i
V
V
A
Note that the trivial element, R
6
, is accounted now. Thus, the current in the 3V source is –6A into
the positive terminal, i.e., 6 A out of the positive terminal. Fig. 4.3-3 shows the complete solution of
the circuit.
I
2
I
3
R
1
0.2
Ω
R
2
R
5
R
6
1
Ω
0.5
Ω
R
3
0.5
Ω
0.2
Ω
R
4
1
Ω
4 A
6 A
3 V
15 A
–11 A
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
I
1
2 V
9 A
1 A
15 A
2 V
V
1
1 V
3 V
10 A
1 A
1 V
1 V
2 A
2 V
0 V
1 V
3 V
Fig. 4.3-3
Complete solution for the circuit in Fig. 4.3-1
Next, we consider a case in which an independent voltage source appears across two nodes other
than the reference node. See the circuit in Fig. 4.3-4.
I
1
I
2
I
3
R
1
R
0.2
Ω
R
2
R
5
R
3
R
4
R
6
v
1
v
2
1
Ω
0.5
Ω
0.5
Ω
0.2
Ω
1
Ω
9 A
10 A
2 V
V
1
i
V1
–17 A
1
2
3
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Fig. 4.3-4
Circuit with an independent voltage source across two nodes
The independent voltage source V
1
constrains the voltage at node-3 to be above the voltage at
node-2 by V
1
V. If we know one of them, we can find the other. Hence, only one of them – either v
2
4.12
Nodal Analysis and Mesh Analysis of Memoryless Circuits
or v
3
– needs be assigned. Node-1 is not constrained in any way and hence needs to be assigned a
node voltage variable. Hence, v
1
and v
2
are assigned as shown. It could have been v
1
and v
3
with no
difference to the final solution. Thus, here too, we find that an independent voltage source imposes a
constraint on node voltage variables and reduces the number of node voltage variable by one.
We write the KCL equation ( or node equation) at all the nodes except at reference node. We make
use of the constraint equation v
3
=
v
2
+
V
1
wherever we need v
3
in the process of writing node equations
at node-1 and node-2.
The resulting equations are
Node 1
Node 2
−
+
−
+
− −
=
−
+
−
−
G v
G v
v
G v
v
V
I
G v
G v
v
G
1 1
2
1
2
3
1
2
1
1
4 2
2
2
1
(
)
(
)
(
)
55 1
2
3
6
2
1
3
2
1
1
5 1
3
1
1
V
i
I
I
G v
V
G v
V
v
G V
i
I
V
V
− = − −
−
+
+
+ −
+
+ =
Node 3
(
)
(
)
We get rid of
i
V
1
> by adding the last two equations and end up with two equations in two unknowns.
Node 1
Node 2 Node 3
−
+
−
+
− −
=
− +
−
+
G v
G v
v
G v
v
V
I
G v
G v
1 1
2
1
2
3
1
2
1
1
4 2
2
(
)
(
)
(
22
1
6
2
1
3
2
1
1
2
−
+
+
+
+ −
= −
v
G v
V
G v
V
v
I
)
(
)
(
)
(4.3-3)
Note that the resistor R
5
and current source I
3
which are directly across the voltage source disappear
from the equations. They become trivial elements. They do not affect the node voltages and hence
voltage and current of other elements. They affect only the current through the voltage source.
The Eqn. 4.3-3 can be expressed in matrix form as
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
v
v
G
1
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
4
6
1
2
3
+
+
−
+
−
+
+
+
+
=
V
V
I
G
G V
I
1
1
6
3
1
2
+
−
+
−
(
)
=
−
−
+
1
0
0
1
0
0
3
6
3
1
2
3
1
G
G
G
I
I
I
V
(
)
The matrix equation has come out in the form of
YV
=
CU
again. We note that the
Y
matrix is
symmetric. Moreover, the
Y
-matrix can be obtained from the deactivated circuit as in the earlier case.
Substituting values for conductances and the source functions, we get,
8
3
3
9
9 2 2
17
7 2
13
3
1
2
−
−
=
+ ×
− −
− ×
=
v
v
(
)
The solution is v
1
=
2V and v
2
=
1V. The current through the voltage source can be obtained by
applying KCL at node-2 or node-3. Using node-3,
G v
V
G v
V
v
G V
i
I
i
V
V
6
2
1
3
2
1
1
5 1
3
1
1
5 1 2
2 1 2 2
2 2
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
+
+
+ −
+
+ =
+ +
+ − + × + =
110
11
1
⇒
= −
i
V
A
Note that the trivial elements R
5
and I
3
came back in this equation. The complete solution is shown
in Fig. 4.3-5.
Nodal Analysis of Circuits Containing Independent Voltage Sources
4.13
I
1
I
2
I
3
R
1
0.2
Ω
R
2
R
5
R
3
R
4
R
6
1
Ω
0.5
Ω
0.5
Ω
0.2
Ω
1
Ω
9 A
10 A
1 A
4 A
2 A
1 A
15 A
1 V
1 V
1 V
3 V
2 V
2 V
10 A
11 A
2 V
V
1
–17 A
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2 V
1 V
3 V
0 V
Fig. 4.3-5
Complete solution for the circuit in Fig. 4.3-4
The last two examples have demonstrated the following:
(i) An independent voltage source imposes a constraint on node voltage variables and reduces their
number by one.
(ii) A node voltage variable need not be assigned at a node if an independent voltage source determines
that node voltage directly or indirectly through another node voltage variable assigned to another
node.
(iii) Node equation at a node where the node voltage is fixed directly by an independent voltage
source connected from that node to the reference node is not required for solving other node
voltage variables.
(iv) Node equations at two nodes with an independent voltage source between them have to be added
to get a combined node equation that will be useful in solving the circuit analysis problem.
(v) The nodal analysis formulation results in an equation
YV
=
CU
where
Y
is the nodal conductance
matrix of a reduced order circuit resulting from deactivating all independent sources in it. The
input vector
U
contains all the independent current source functions and independent voltage
source functions. The solution for the node voltage vector
V
can be written as
Y
-1
CU
. This
indicates that each node voltage (and hence all element voltages and currents) can be expressed
as a linear combination of input source functions – i.e., x a I
a I
bV
b V
=
+
+ +
+
+
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
…
where x is some node voltage variable or element current/voltage variable and a’s and b’s are
coefficients decided by circuit conductances and connection details. Some of the a’s and b’s may
turn out to be zero for certain choices of x. For instance a
3
is zero if x
=
v
1
in the example we just
concluded, but it is non-zero if x
=
i
V
1
.
(vi) The current through independent voltage sources can be found out only after the node voltage
variables are solved. Finding the current through an independent voltage source requires the
application of KCL at one of the end nodes of that voltage source.
We know an n node circuit has only n
-
1 node voltage variables. Each independent voltage source
reduces the number of node voltage variables to be solved for by one. Then, what happens if there
are n
-
1 independent voltage sources in the circuit? This leads us to our next example. Consider the
following example circuit in Fig. 4.3-6 that has all the three node voltage variables constrained by
three independent voltage sources.
4.14
Nodal Analysis and Mesh Analysis of Memoryless Circuits
I
1
R
1
R
0.2
Ω
R
2
R
5
R
3
R
4
R
6
i
V
1
i
V
2
i
V
3
1
Ω
0.5
Ω
0.5
Ω
0.2
Ω
1
Ω
12 A
2 V
1 V
2 V
1
2
3
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
V
1
V
2
V
3
Fig. 4.3-6
A fully constrained nodal analysis example circuit
Although all the three nodes are identified in the diagram, no node voltage variable is assigned to
them. This is so since the voltage source V
1
fixes the first node potential, the voltage source V
2
fixes
the second node potential and sources V
2
and V
3
together fix the third node potential. Hence, the circuit
solution is v
1
=
2V, v
2
=
1V and v
3
=
3V. Now, all resistor voltages/currents and voltage across current
sources can be worked out by inspection. Further,
i
V
1
,
i
V
2
and
i
V
3
can be found out by applying KCL
at the three nodes.
I
1
12 A
10 A
2 V
1 V
2 V
3 A
1 A
2 A
21 A
4 A
1 V
1 V
1 A
17 A
15 A
1 V
3 V
2 V
2 V
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
V
1
V
2
V
3
2 V
1 V
3 V
0 V
Fig. 4.3-7
Solution for circuit shown in Fig. 4.3-6
KCL at Node 1
− →
+
−
+
−
+ =
G v
G v
v
G v
v
i
I
V
1 1
2
1
2
3
1
3
1
1
(
)
(
)
. Substituting numerical values and
solving for
i
V
1
, we get
i
V
1
=
3A. Further,
KCL at Node 2
KCL at Node 3
− →
+
−
+
−
+ −
=
− →
G v
G v
v
G v
v
i
i
V
V
4 2
2
2
1
5
2
3
2
3
0
(
)
(
)
G
G v
G v
v
G v
v
i
V
6 3
3
3
1
5
3
2
3
0
+
−
+
−
+
=
(
)
(
)
We eliminate
i
V
3
by adding these two equations to get
G v
G v
v
G v
G v
v
i
V
4 2
2
2
1
6 3
3
3
1
2
0
+
−
+
+
−
+
=
(
)
(
)
.
Substituting numerical values and solving for
i
V
2
, we get
i
V
2
=
-
17A. Substituting this value in the
node equation at node-2, we solve for
i
V
3
to get
i
V
3
=
-
21A. The complete circuit solution is shown in
Fig. 4.3-7.
This circuit had no free node voltage variable. The three independent voltage sources suitably
connected had fixed the node voltage variables already. Thus, there was no circuit analysis problem
to begin with.
Three independent voltage sources in a four-node circuit need not result in a fully constrained
circuit necessarily. For instance, assume that the source V
3
is shifted and connected between node-1
Source Transformation Theorem and its Use in Nodal Analysis
4.15
and node-2. We note that the three independent voltage sources will then form a closed loop in which
KVL equation will lead to an inconsistent equation –2
-
2
+
1
=
0. Practically, this means that all
the three sources are being shorted together with large currents in them. However, if we insist on
modelling the sources as independent ones, the circuit can have no solution when the KVL equation
in a loop leads to inconsistent equation. Thus, the value of V
3
has to be changed to –1 V if it has to be
connected between node-1 and node-2. KVL will be satisfied then. Now, the node voltage variable
at node-3 is not constrained by these three sources and hence will have to be obtained by nodal
analysis. However, the reader may verify that there is no way to determine the currents in the three
voltage sources uniquely! There are infinite possible sets of values for these three currents. Thus,
the circuit cannot be solved uniquely. Similar conclusions will follow for a case with more than
( n
-
1) independent voltage sources in an n node circuit – either the circuit cannot be solved due to
inconsistencies in KVL equations or the circuit can not be solved uniquely.
Thus, the maximum number of independent voltage source that can be there in a
n
-node
circuit with unique solution is (
n
-
1).
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