parts low-temperature property retention, toughness,
and impact strength; and styrene adds luster (gloss)
rigidity, and processing ease.
The drying characteristics of ABS polymers
change with changes in composition. Generally, a
centrifuge cake containing 50% moisture (wb) must
be dried to a final product containing less than 0.1%
moisture. The critical moisture composition is around
5%. The allowable product temperature is approxi-
mately 100
8
C. ABS plastics are mildly hygroscopic; if
dried, ABS is left in storage for some time and it must
be dried again to reduce the moisture to a level
(<0.1%) adequate for most applications. On the
basis of these physical properties, single-stage, cocur-
rent, and direct heat transfer rotary dryers and flash
dryers are commonly used. Rotary dryers have the
advantage of a longer residence time, making them
suitable for drying ABS polymers with a larger par-
ticle size. The flash drying system is suitable only for
small particle sizes but is more economical with re-
gard to thermal efficiency.
In case ABS forms lumps in the course of the
coagulation and/or dehydration process, it is neces-
sary to add another process to crush the lumps, i.e., to
install an FD with a cage mill or use a ring dryer in
the first stage of the dryer. Since drying in the falling
rate has the main objective of removing the mono-
mers, it is necessary for the material to have a long
retention time. To satisfy such a requirement, a batch
FBD is widely adopted.
Drying of ABS has been commercially successful
in a two-stage drying system with the combination of
direct and indirect heat transfer. Since ABS requires
both surface and bound moisture removal, a two-
stage drying system is recommended.
The two-stage flash FBD system is advantageous
in terms of thermal efficiency and product quality.
The first-stage flash dryer does most of the evapor-
ation. FBD, characterized by longer residence times,
is used in the second stage. In the second stage, FBD
can be replaced by a direct or indirect rotary dryer. If
a fluid bed is used as the second stage, it is advanta-
geous to use the plug-flow model since in such a bed
residence time can be controlled within narrow limits.
Among the developments for drying ABS are
the indirect-heated closed-loop, inert gas-heated, or
liquid-heated dryers. These dryers minimize the emis-
sion of styrene monomer and oxidation of the poly-
mer is prevented by the inert purge gas. The overall
efficiency is also high. A particular type of this class
of dryers is the indirect-heated FBD depicted in Fig-
ure 41.10. This type of dryer uses a rectangular bed to
optimize the solids flow and heat transfer fluid
LMTD effect. Also, the plenum-side inlet gas is at a
low temperature, precluding any mechanical con-
straints. In this process, an external direct-fired hater
operating at low excess combustion air heats a heat
transfer fluid (e.g., molten salt, thermal fluids, steam,
and others) to a temperature above that of the bed,
but below the ABS degradation temperature. Since
the heat source is decoupled from the fluidizing gas
Fired
heat
Fuel
Recycled N
2
N
2
blower
Fluide bed
Combustion air
Feed
Circulating fluid
Product
Scrubber
Stack
Cyclone
FIGURE 41.10
Contact closed-cycle fluidized bed dryer for acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene.
ß
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
source, large vessel diame ters are not ne eded. Fur -
ther, the smaller amou nt of fluidizi ng gas requir es
much smaller pollution con trol equipment .
W hen it is possible to obtain such wet raw mate r-
ial that is properl y coagulat ed and dehydrat ed but
with no form ation of lumps an d yet has a low level
of moisture, the singl e C-FBD as sho wn in
Figure
41.9
ha s been wi dely used in recent years.
ABS group resins are highly inflammable and self-
combustible and liable to cause dust explosion. It is
absolutely necessary to be very alert not only in set-
ting and controlling the hot air temperature but also
in eliminating any possible kindling causes, e.g.,
introduction of metallic foreign substances in the
raw material and overcharged static electricity. Care-
ful maintenance is further required. Periodical clean-
ing to remove the resin adhering to the equipment is
essential for safety.
ABS, while drying, emits styrene, a highly toxic
substance. Very recently the U.S. National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has
set a limit for workplace exposure of styrene.
NIOSH suggests that workers should not be exposed
to
>
50 ppm of styrene over a time-weighted average
of 19 h/day, 40 h/week. Further, a ceiling concentra-
tion of 100 ppm during any 15-min sampling period is
enforced in the United States.
Owing to this recent regulation, there are indeed
very few optional routes left for drying ABS other
than indirect-heated drying with an inert closed-loop
gas system.
41.4.4 D
RYING OF
S
YNTHETIC
F
IBERS
Polymers that demand special precautions during
drying are common in the synthetic fiber industry.
Of these, nylon and polyester chips are the two most
common examples. These resins are hygroscopic and
have to be dried before a spinning or molding process.
Generally, these polymers are introduced to the dryer
in the form of 3- to 4-mm cubic pellets.
41.4.4.1 Nylon
Nylon is the generic term for any long-chain, syn-
thetic, polymeric amide in which recurring amide
groups are integral to the main polymer chain [3].
There is a wide choice of starting materials from
which polyamides can be synthesized. The two pri-
mary mechanisms for polymer manufacture are con-
densation of a diamine and a dibasic acid or their
equivalents or polymerization of monomeric sub-
stances. Nylons are identified by a simple numerical
system. The words
polyamide
and
nylon
are followed
by one or more numbers. One number indicates that
the product was prepared from a single monomeric
substance and also indicates the number of carbon
atoms in the linear chain of the recurring polymer
unit. For example, nylon-6 is manufactured by the
polymerization of caprolactam and nylon-11, from
11-aminoundecanoic acid. When two numbers are
used, they are separated by a comma and refer to
the reactants used in the polymer’s manufacture.
The first number refers to the number of carbon
atoms in the diabasic acid. Thus, nylon-6,6 is
prepared from the reaction of hexamethylenediamine
and adipic acid. The difference in numbers of carbon
atoms between the amide groups results in a signifi-
cant difference in mechanical and physical properties.
Although the theoretical number of nylon types is
very large, a few are commercially available. Of
these, nylon-6 and nylon-6,6 comprise about 75 to
80% of the nylon fiber and nylon-molding compound
market.
Nylon chips are normally dried form 4 to 10%
inlet moisture (wb) to <0.1% outlet moisture. If they
are allowed to absorb moisture, they must be dried
prior to processing. Some nylon may hold as much
as 2% moisture under normal storage conditions but
must still be processed satisfactorily with less than
0.1% moisture remaining in the material for reuse.
Because of the low temperature limits (70 to 80
8
C)
allowable for drying nylon, very low dew points and
longer times are required to achieve even this much
dryness. The common dryer for nylon is the batch
vacuum tumble dryer. The drying temperature is
kept controlled within 70 to 80
8
C, and drying time
ranges from 10 to 24 h. If vacuum drying is not
possible, use of recirculating dyers at 80
8
C and
dehumidified air is the next best solution. During
hot, humid weather, attention must be paid to
guarantee that the recirculating air is indeed dry
or moisture will be added to nylon rather than
removed. Prolonged exposure to this drying condi-
tion can result in discoloration and possible prop-
erty deterioration.
Nylon has a poor polymerization effect, and the
chips have a high moisture content at the beginning
with a propensity for holding rather low levels of
moisture very tenaciously. As a result, a long time is
required for drying. For these reasons, it is advanta-
geous to use FBD and/or PDD for this process. In
fact these dryers can perform drying down to 0.002%
moisture content in 4 to 6 h.
Another characteristic of the nylon is that, if it is
at low moisture content, it is subjected to oxidative
deterioration and discoloration at high temperatures.
Because of this problem, it is usual to dry it with air
when the moisture content is high and then to dry in
an inert atmosphere.
ß
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
41.4.4.2 Polyester
A polyester fiber is any long-chain synthetic polymer
composed of at least 85 wt% of an ester of a dihydric
alcohol (HOROH) and terephthalic acid (TA) (
p
-
HOOCC
6
H
4
COOH). The most widely used polyester
fiber is made from linear polyethylene terephthalate
(PET).
PET is a linear homopolymer, i.e., a condensa-
tion polymer of TA or its dimethyl ester, dimethyl
terephthalate (DMT), and ethylene glycol. The poly-
mer is melted and extruded or spun through a
spinneret, forming filaments that are solidified by
cooling in a current of air. The spun fiber is drawn
by heating and stretching the filaments to several
times their original length to form a somewhat
oriented crystalline structure with desired physical
properties.
During early stages of processing of PET, drying
was carried out in batch vacuum tumblers. The pro-
cessing time was 10 to 12 h. As the demand for larger
capacity gradually increased, the multistage, batch-
type fluidized bed drying system replaced the older
vacuum tumbler dryers.
A characteristic of a PET chip is that, if the raw
material is heated at 90 to 100
8
C, its composition is
rearranged from a vitreous to a crystalline form. The
chips stick to each other owing to surface melting
when they are heated at a high temperature. In
order to avoid this problem, the drying system is
divided into two stages. In the first stage crystalliza-
tion and preheating are accomplished; in the second
stage drying is completed. In the first stage, the
heating is gradual. Agitation is required to prevent
sintering or sticking of the product at this stage.
Usually, a fluidized bed or agitated vessel is used for
this purpose.
After surface crystallization is performed, the
chips do not show adhesiveness before the tempera-
ture rises to the melting point. Advantage is taken of
this property of the chips, which are then discharged
into a continuously moving bed dryer. Usually nitro-
gen, with a dew point temperature of
40
8
C, or de-
humidified air is passed countercurrent to the product
flow. In continuous operation, a 2-h gain in residence
time could be achieved.
In recent years, with the diversification of the
applications of PET, there is a demand to miniaturize
the equipment and to save energy. This has motivated
various special dryer designs exclusively for PET. One
is PDD. A combination of B-FBD and PDD has a
chip retention time close to that of an ideal piston
flow, thus enabling considerable savings in the energy
cost for drying.
41.4.5 M
ISCELLANEOUS
Polystyrene (PS) and acrylonitrile–styrene (AS) are
two other polymers produced in bulk quantities. Pre-
viously, these polymers were dried with FD. Later,
C-FBD replaced all previous FD dryers because of
their energy savings advantage. In recent years, pad-
dle dryers have made rapid gains. The heat-resisting
power of these materials is comparatively low. Melted
material will adhere to the walls of the equipment if
the processing temperature is not properly regulated.
PC is another commodity resin that demands
careful drying. When the polymer was first commer-
cialized, it was common to use FD plus B-FBD with
the steam-stripping process. In recent years this has
been gradually switched to PD with the idea of energy
saving and of the direct process of chloride solvent
without steam stripping. The Solidaire dryer is an-
other possible choice. Since PC has comparatively
high heat resistance, the drying process is not difficult.
Polypropylene oxide (PPO) is a recently developed
resin with an application that is rapidly expanding. It
requires a comparatively long drying time since it
contains superfine particles and has high affinity for
water. Of various kinds of polymers, this is the one
that requires the most difficult processing techniques.
The paddle dryer is found to process this material
economically.
41.5 DRYING OF POLYMER RESINS
In order to avoid surface defects in molded parts and
sheets made from resins, it is usually necessary to dry
the pellets before processing. Residual moisture above
some critical level can cause a finished product with
unsatisfactory surface finish and properties. Drying is
required to reduce the moisture content of the pellet
below some critical value. The degree of dryness de-
pends on the specific nature of each converting oper-
ation; some require more critical moisture control than
others. For example, PET and nylons are very hygro-
scopic but for different reasons. PET in normal storage
conditions contains about 0.15% moisture (db). It must
be dried to a level of 0.005% (db) or better for process-
ing. Although PET is not difficult to dry because of the
high temperature that can be used, it can have abso-
lutely no exposure to atmosphere between drying and
processing operations. On the other hand, some nylons
may hold 2% moisture under normal storage conditions
but can be processed satisfactorily with 0.1 to 0.15%
moisture in the material. Because of the low tempera-
ture limits (70 to 80
8
C) allowable when drying nylon,
very low dew points and longer drying times are re-
quired to achieve even this much dryness.
ß
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
41.5.1 G
ENERAL
O
BSERVATIONS
Depending on the degree of affinity for moisture, plas-
tic resin s can be divide d into tw o c lasses: (1) hy gro-
scopic and (2) nonhy groscopi c. Moistu re ad sorption
and/or absorpt ion capab ility de pends on the type of
resins as well as the ambie nt tempe ratur e in whi ch it is
placed. In some insta nces, expo sure of only few min-
utes can be detriment al. If the material is expo sed to a
certain tempe ratur e and relative humidi ty for a period
of time, it wi ll reach the equilibrium point, referred to
as the
equilibr ium moi sture conten t
(EMC ). Prior to
drying it is impor tant to know the permea bility (prod-
uct of the diffusion constant of water vapo r–polym er
system and the solubi lity coeffici ent) of polyme r to
water vap or since this dictates the conditio n for rela-
tive humidi ty for the safe storage of the polyme r [16].
41.5.1 .1 Nonh ygroscopi c Re sins
Polyethy lene, polystyrene, and PP fall unde r the clas-
sification of nonhy droscopic resins. These types of
polyme r resins collec t mois ture on the surfa ce of the
pellet only. The moisture can or iginate from severa l
potenti al sources . Such mois ture in some cases can be
remove d very easil y by moderat e preh eating imm edi-
ately prior to feedin g the mate rial into the mold. In
some cases it is suffici ent to provide vents at the
transiti on from the hopper to the mold cavity. In
some sit uations the mois ture can be remove d by pass-
ing war m air ov er the mate rial. The equipment util -
ized to heat air and dry resi ns is usually very sim ple,
e.g., an inlet air filter, a blow er, and a controlled
electric heater, as sho wn in Figure 41.11.
41.5.1 .2 Hygr oscopic Resins
PET, ny lon, ABS , and PC come unde r the class ifica-
tion of hygro scopic resi ns. Thes e types of polyme r
resin collect mois ture inside the pellet its elf. Remo val
of this moisture requir es dry air as well as he at. These
resins therefo re demand prop er design and carefu l
machi ne selection for each ap plication. Desiccant
dryers are the dominant techn ology for these resi ns.
41.5.2 D
RYING
M
ETHODS
41.5.2 .1 Dry ing with Heat as Transfer Med ium
In these types of dryer, air is us ed exclus ivel y as a he at
transfer medium . A dist inction is made be tween
1. Dryers with fresh air only (open syst em)
2. Air circul ation dryers with pa rtial supply of
fresh air (sem iopen system)
3. Desiccant dryers
Figu re 41.11 shows the simplest type of dryer wi th
fresh air operati on. Heated air flows through the bed
of granu les, nor mally from bottom to top, unifor mly
heat the bed of granule s and at the same time carry off
the mois ture. The a ir tempe ratur e at the inlet is kep t
approxim ately 20
8
C ab ove the de sired tempe ratur e of
the gran ule bed . Its advan tages are: (1) these units a re
inexpensi ve; (2) easy to handle a nd clean; (3) readily
attachable to molding machines; and (4) have a high
degree of efficiency (30 to 80%). Among its disadvan-
tages are: (1) drying depends on dew point temperature
(i.e., weather and climate); (2) it has only a moderate
efficiency for hygroscopic resins (20 to 30%); (3) there
is possible contamination of environment and gran-
ules (pollution); and (4) the exhaust air is at a high
temperature (40 to 60
8
C). Usually these types of hop-
pers or dryers are suitable for nonhygroscopic plastics,
e.g., polyolefins and polystyrene.
In dryers with partial recir culation (
Figur e 41.12
) ,
all the exhaust is not vented into the atmosphere since
it still contains energy. Instead, 70 to 90% of the
exhaust air is recirculated. The fresh air makeup usu-
ally ranges from 10 to 30% of the total flow, which
increases the drying capacity of the recirculated air.
These dryers are more energy efficient than the open
type but have the same relative advantages and dis-
advantages and are particularly suitable for nonhy-
groscopic and mildly hygroscopic resins, e.g., ABS,
PC, PMMA, PPO, and SAN.
In desiccant dryers, the heat transfer medium
(generally air) is given an additional treatment to
lower the dew point in a desiccant chamber, where
the moisture is removed. This dried air passes through
a heating chamber and the fixed bed of granules from
Waste air filter
Hopper
Heater blower
Fresh air
filter
FIGURE 41.11
Resin dryer (open cycle).
ß
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
bottom to top. Two most commonly used desiccants
are silica gel and molecular sieve. New polymeric
desiccants have recently been developed. When the
inlet concentration of moisture in the airstream is
high, silica gel removes more moisture by weight.
For lower inlet moisture conditions, the molecular
sieve works best. The incoming airstream to the des-
iccant bed in a plastic dryer is warm, generally above
40
8
C. This makes use of a molecular sieve necessary
to remove moisture. Another advantage of the mo-
lecular sieve is that it produces 1000 kcal/kg of mois-
ture absorbed. As a result, a bed with a molecular
sieve is not only capable of achieving lower moisture
dew points, but also requires less energy input (as
heat) to achieve drying rates.
Figure 41.13 shows a desiccant bed system in the
semiopen design. In this unit the smaller stream,
heated to approximately 200
8
C, passes through a
desiccant chamber where moisture is removed from
the adsorbent and is then vented. After this regener-
ation of the adsorbent, the chambers are rotated.
Commercial units are also available in which the
circulating air is not exchanged. This design features
redrying in one chamber at a time by preheating fresh
air. Since in such units the entire desiccant battery is
removable, the adsorbent is redried outside the gran-
ule-drying circuit. This ensures almost constant dry-
ing capacity. By cooling the returning airflow with an
additional cooler, it is possible to lower the dew point
far below the ambient temperature.
Generally,
hygroscopic
resins,
e.g.,
nylon-6,
nylon-6,6, PET, PBT, and ABS, are dried in desiccant
dryers. The dew point of the drying medium has a
significant impact on drying hygroscopic resins. For
example, PET absolutely requires dew points in the
40 to
50
8
C range to be adequately dried. For other
hygroscopic resins, dew points in the range of
15 to
25
8
C are adequate.
41.5.2.2 Drying without a Heat Transfer Medium
An alternative to drying polymer resins is the use
of vented barrels for drying without a transfer med-
ium. This technology for drying resins is gaining
ground. In one of the proprietory designs, an annular
Waste air filter
Fresh air
Blower
Heater
Hopper
FIGURE 41.12
Resin dryer (semiopen cycle).
Feed
Fresh air
Air heaters
(reversible)
Desiccant batteries
Control valve (reversible)
Air heater
FIGURE 41.13
Resin dryer with desiccant batteries.
ß
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
chamber forme d by a tubing made of mesh in the
center of the dryer an d a perfor ated exter nal shell or
barrel surroun ding the flowin g mate rials are used .
The mate rial enters the feed port on the top of the
dryer and then flows by gravi ty. The perfor ated shell
is covered with bands to heat the mate rial, an d the air
is drawn through it. This assem bly is furt her enclosed
in an exter nal protective jacket . As the mate rial flows
through the ann ular chamber, air en tering between
the protect ive jacket and the inner perforated barrel is
heated and draw n up the mesh tub ing or ch imney in
the center of the dryer. Air travel is control led by a
compres sed-air venturi. As he ated air passes through
the plastic granu les, it drives off su rface mois ture and
preheat s the mate rial before it enters the feed throat
of the screw. Any inter nal mois ture remai ning in the
hot pelle ts is flashed off almos t inst antaneous ly by
shearin g acti on. Water vap or flashed off in the barrel
is dr awn out by the mesh tubing ch imney, pro viding
an unobstruct ed escape path for the mois ture, which
is exhau sted into the atmos phere.
Advan tages of ve nting are: (1) littl e risk of co n-
taminati on; (2) ope ration indep endent of mois ture
content ; (3) reliabil ity; (4) consis tency of qua lity;
and (5) remova l of resi dual mon omers unde r favor-
able co ndition s.
41.6 DRYING OF SELECTED POLYMERS
From the discus sion above, it is obv ious that there is
an application for severa l dryer types for drying of
polyme rs and resi ns. For instan ce, suspensi on PVC is
usually dried eithe r in two-st age systems involv ing a
flash predryer followe d by a fluid -bed second-s tage
dryer (w ith or wi thout tubes) , or by a singl e drying
stage such as a rotar y drum dryer or , more com-
monly, an FBD wi th inter nal he at trans fer surfa ces
(e.g., tubes, coils, or plate s). Em ulsion PVCs, on the
other ha nd, are mainly process ed in spray dryers. PP
is dr ied in similar syst ems to those used for suspe n-
sion PVC , and the various form s of polyst yrene a re
process ed in eithe r flash or FBD s. Polyacry lonitril e,
which is frequent ly produced as a filter cak e, is dr ied
either on a ba nd dryer after being preformed into a
suitable shape, or dried in a single- or two-st age flash
dryer. Some form s of polyet hylene requir e drying and
here again systems are either flash dryers or FBD s
with in-bed heat trans fer tubes. For polyam ides, col-
umn dryers are mainly used unde r a nitrog en blan ket
in order to avo id oxidat ion. Some app lications em-
ploy low-temp erature fluid beds to dry the granule s.
Polyester granules (e.g., PET) are used for the pro-
duction of bottle polymer, film (either video or wrap-
ping), and fiber or filament. These types of polyester
require quite a different system as the product first
undergoes a crystallization stage before reducing the
moisture to very low levels, below 50 ppm. Due to the
very special requirements for this type of polymer, spe-
cial processing systems have been developed. The fol-
lowing presents an application for the economic drying
of polyester chips to very low moisture for the produc-
tion of microfilaments. The same drying systems can be
used for any of the other polyester products, as well as
for the drying of PBT and some PC granules.
In recent years, the trend in the produ ction of
polyester yarn is to produce ultrafin e micro filamen t
at 5 to 7
m
m diame ter that requir es drying to 20 ppm .
Tradit ional filamen t yarn and staple fibe r having a
diame ter of 18 to 22
m
m typic ally requir e 50-ppm
final moisture.
The first continuous PET drying syst em, origin -
ally develope d by Rosin Engi neering (Londo n), was a
combinat ion of horizont al pa ddle crystall izer with a
vertical column dryer. This syst em was used exten-
sively for the prod uction of all types of fibers, e.g. ,
indust rial yarn, bottl e polyme r, and film. Alt hough
quite versat ile in that it can be used wi th diff erent
types of granules having completely different sizes, it
has the disadvantage that there is a slight formation
of dust due to the mechanical action of the paddles,
and also that space has to be left at one end of the
crystallizer for the withdrawal of the rotor shaft.
However, at the same time, fluidized bed units for
solid-phase polymerization (SPP) of PET and poly-
amide were being developed. It was observed that
there were several advantages in using a fluidized
bed for the initial heating and precrystallizing phase
as compared with the rotary paddle type of other
existing systems. Rosin manufactured its first com-
bined fluidized bed crystallizer and column dryer for
PET drying in 1970 (
Figur e 41.14
) .
The system consists of a fluidized bed heater/pre-
crystallizer and a column dryer for PET. The fluid-
bed section has five main functions:
1. Evaporation of surface and some internal
moisture from PET
2. Transformation of PET from the amorphous
to the crystalline condition
3. Heating of the chips to the temperature re-
quired for drying in the column
4. Provide sufficient turbulence to avoid sintering
or chips sticking together
5. Removal of dust from the incoming granules
PET chips are fed into the fluid bed by a variable-
speed vibro feeder and a fixed-speed rotary valve that
acts as a gas seal. They meet an oncoming stream of
heated gas (e.g., nitrogen or air) and become partially
suspended in the flow. As more chips are fed in, the
ß
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
fluid bed becomes established as a deep agitated mass
of material exhibiting many properties of a fluid.
When a wet chip (typically 0.5% moisture) falls
into the fluid bed, the surface moisture is rapidly
evaporated. As the chip is then further heated, crys-
tallization
occurs.
This
amorphous-to-crystalline
transformation of PET is an exothermic reaction
and the heat given off is quite sufficient to raise the
surface temperature of PET to above the softening
point. If the chips are not moving as they do in the
fully developed fluidized state, this will produce large
solid lumps of agglomerated chips.
It is important to prevent agglomeration of chips
so that the subsequent drying stage may proceed
uniformly. Agglomerates may not dry completely,
which gives rise to subsequent processing problems,
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