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predecessors. In the words that Cicero placed in the mouth of Scipio
Africanus, ‘all those who have preserved, aided or enlarged their
fatherland have a special place prepared for them in the heavens’
(
Republic
, 6.13).
As soon as the young men could endure the hardships of war, they
were taught a soldier’s duties in camp under a vigorous discipline,
and they took more pleasure in handsome arms and war horses
than in harlots and revelry. To such men consequently no labour
was unfamiliar, no region too rough or too steep, no armed enemy
was terrible; courage was everything. Their hardest struggle was
with each other; each man strove to be the first to strike down
the foe, to scale a wall, to be seen by all while doing such a deed.
This
they considered virtue, this fair fame and high nobility.
(Sallust,
The War Against Catiline
, 7.4–6)
Sallust’s account of the virtuous Republic of the past is driven by the
contrast with the ‘decadent’ Republic of his own time, dominated
in his opinion by avarice and luxury; it may not be historically
accurate, therefore, but it does clearly express the ideals of the
Roman elite, the values which they
believed
should determine
their behaviour. The Roman noble was trained in warfare and in
military values from an early age; his public career began as a
military tribune and, as he proceeded through the
cursus honorum
,
the ladder of official positions, his terms of office as a magistrate
and a member of the senate were interspersed with further periods
of military service. War provided opportunities for glory, and a
basis for the greater glory of attaining the higher magistracies; an
impressive war record was one of the most important qualities that
an aristocrat could display to persuade the people to vote for his
candidacy. In turn, the consulship entailed command of an army
and the possibility – if Rome went to war – of gaining the highest
honour of a triumph. Such glory was not essential for political
success – by the second century, at any rate, the example of Cato
shows that it was possible to build a career on the basis of civilian
attributes like oratory – but it remained central to Roman ideology
even after the system of competition for office had collapsed. A weak
emperor like Claudius, dependent on the continuing support of the
military, would make war in order to establish his credentials as
the head of the Roman Empire and the army’s commander in chief.
Other emperors sought to match or out-do their predecessors and,
just as importantly, to limit the opportunities for potential rivals
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ThE roman EmpIrE
cause of a tradition of violent relations with the rest of the world.
Furthermore, this approach focuses solely on decisions taken at the
centre; imperialism is seen as a directed, conscious process in which
the conquering power imposes itself on other nations. Essentially,
however far it expresses or implies criticism of their actions, this
‘metrocentric’ approach adopts wholesale the perspective of the
conqueror and coloniser.
32
Some recent studies of modern imperialism have therefore sought
to focus instead on the imperial periphery, the regions outside the
empire.
33
The aim is to understand the conditions that make a
country vulnerable to external interference, whether or not that
results in formal annexation (this approach can also be productive in
understanding the fate of regions in the post-colonial era, precisely
because it focuses on the state of ‘native society’ rather than on
the aims and actions of the conquerors).
34
Applied to the Roman
period, a focus on the periphery emphasises the wide variety of
situations faced by the Romans in the course of their expansion –
from established empires such as Carthage and Egypt; to the mosaic
of small, disunited statelets in Greece; to the pre-state, tribal societies
of Spain and Gaul.
35
It was not just that these polities had to be
handled in different ways and represented different levels of threat;
in many cases, conditions at the periphery created opportunities for
Rome to intervene, or left them with little choice but to get involved.
Rivalries amongst the Greek states and their fear of Macedon led
them to seek the protection of an alliance with a greater power; the
Romans sought to protect their interests through strategic alliances
with neighbouring states, but could then find themselves pulled
into local affairs, or in conflict with another of the major powers,
as a result.
The same happened in Gaul in the first century BCE when one
tribe, the Helvetii, sought to pass through the territory of another
tribe that had long-standing ties with the Romans and who called
on them for help (Caesar,
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