X Xanax, 565 f , 567
Z Zone of Proximal development (ZPD),
409 f –410
Zygote, 388
Zygote intrafallopian transfer
(ZIFT), 392
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Document Outline
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
About the Author
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Making the Grade
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Psychology
MODULE 1 Psychologists at Work
The Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family Tree
Working at Psychology
PSYCHWORK: Licensed Social Worker
MODULE 2 A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future
The Roots of Psychology
Today’s Perspectives
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY: Psychology Matters
MODULE 3 Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Understanding How Culture, Ethnicity, and Race Influence Behavior
Psychology’s Future
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically About Psychology: Distinguishing Legitimate Psychology from Pseudo-Psychology
CHAPTER 2 Psychological Research
MODULE 4 The Scientific Method
Theories: Specifying Broad Explanations
Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions
MODULE 5 Conducting Psychological Research
Archival Research
Naturalistic Observation
Survey Research
The Case Study
Correlational Research
Experimental Research
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY: Testing the Value of Self-Affirmations: Am I Lovable Because I Tell Myself I’m Lovable?
MODULE 6 Critical Research Issues
The Ethics of Research
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Choosing Participants Who Represent the Scope of Human Behavior
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: The Importance of Using Representative Participants
Should Animals Be Used in Research?
Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically About Research
CHAPTER 3 Neuroscience and Behavior
MODULE 7 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior
The Structure of the Neuron
How Neurons Fire
Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap
Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers
MODULE 8 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System: Communicating Within the Body
The Nervous System: Linking Neurons
The Evolutionary Foundations of the Nervous System
The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands
MODULE 9 The Brain
Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain
The Central Core: Our “Old Brain”
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY: Mind Over Cursor: Harnessing Brainpower to Improve Lives
The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core
The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain”
PSYCHWORK: Rehabilitation Counselor
Neuroplasticity and the Brain
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: The Plastic Brain
The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Human Diversity and the Brain
The Split Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Learning to Control Your Heart—and Mind—Through Biofeedback
CHAPTER 4 Sensation and Perception
MODULE 10 Sensing the World Around Us
Absolute Thresholds: Detecting What’s Out There
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY: Driven to Distraction
Difference Thresholds: Noticing Distinctions Between Stimuli
Sensory Adaptation: Turning Down Our Responses
MODULE 11 Vision: Shedding Light on the Eye
Illuminating the Structure of the Eye
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Seeing Vision in the Brain
Color Vision and Color Blindness: The 7-Million-Color Spectrum
MODULE 12 Hearing and the Other Senses
Sensing Sound
Smell and Taste
The Skin Senses: Touch, Pressure, Temperature, and Pain
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Managing Pain
How Our Senses Interact
MODULE 13 Perceptual Organization: Constructing Our View of the World
The Gestalt Laws of Organization
Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing
Depth Perception: Translating 2-D to 3-D
Perceptual Constancy
Motion Perception: As the World Turns
Perceptual Illusions: The Deceptions of Perceptions
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Culture and Perception
CHAPTER 5 States of Consciousness
MODULE 14 Sleep and Dreams
The Stages of Sleep
REM Sleep: The Paradox of Sleep
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY: Let Me Sleep on It: The Role of Sleep in Memory and Thinking
Why Do We Sleep, and How Much Sleep Is Necessary?
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Why Are You Cranky? Your Brain Is Too Awake
The Function and Meaning of Dreaming
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems
PSYCHWORK: Sleep Technologist
Circadian Rhythms: Life Cycles
Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Sleeping Better
MODULE 15 Hypnosis and Meditation
Hypnosis: A Trance-Forming Experience?
Meditation: Regulating Our Own State of Consciousness
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Cross-Cultural Routes to Altered States of Consciousness
MODULE 16 Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of Consciousness
Stimulants: Drug Highs
Depressants: Drug Lows
Narcotics: Relieving Pain and Anxiety
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Identifying Drug and Alcohol Problems
CHAPTER 6 Learning
MODULE 17 Classical Conditioning
The Basics of Classical Conditioning
Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behavior
Extinction
Generalization and Discrimination
Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions
MODULE 18 Operant Conditioning
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
The Basics of Operant Conditioning
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY: Dollars for Scholars: Should Parents and Children Be Paid for Doing the Right Thing?
PSYCHWORK: Seeing Eye Guide Dog Trainer
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Using Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification
MODULE 19 Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Latent Learning
Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Learning Through Observation
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Does Culture Influence How We Learn?
CHAPTER 7 Memory
MODULE 20 The Foundations of Memory
Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory
Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Experience, Memory, and the Brain
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY: In Pursuit of a Memory Eraser
MODULE 21 Recalling Long-Term Memories
Retrieval Cues
Levels of Processing
Explicit and Implicit Memory
Flashbulb Memories
Constructive Processes in Memory: Rebuilding the Past
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Are There Cross-Cultural Differences in Memory?
MODULE 22 Forgetting: When Memory Fails
Why We Forget
Proactive and Retroactive Interference: The Before and After of Forgetting
Memory Dysfunctions: Afflictions of Forgetting
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Alzheimer’s Disease and Brain Deterioration
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Improving Your Memory
CHAPTER 8 Cognition and Language
MODULE 23 Thinking and Reasoning
Mental Images: Examining the Mind’s Eye
Concepts: Categorizing the World
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: How We Learn to Categorize Our World Using Concepts
Reasoning: Making Up Your Mind
Computers and Problem Solving: Searching for Artificial Intelligence
MODULE 24 Problem Solving
Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems
Production: Generating Solutions
Judgment: Evaluating Solutions
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY: The Thoughts Behind Avoiding Danger: When Hunches Save Lives
Impediments to Solutions: Why Is Problem Solving Such a Problem?
Creativity and Problem Solving
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically and Creatively
MODULE 25 Language
Grammar: Language’s Language
Language Development: Developing a Way with Words
The Influence of Language on Thinking: Do Eskimos Have More Words for Snow than Texans Do?
Do Animals Use Language?
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Teaching with Linguistic Variety: Bilingual Education
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Bilingualism and the Brain
CHAPTER 9 Intelligence
MODULE 26 What Is Intelligence?
Theories of Intelligence: Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
The Biological Basis of Intelligence
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Your Intelligent Brain
Practical and Emotional Intelligence: Toward a More Intelligent View of Intelligence
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY: Artificial Intelligence: Building a Smarter Robot
Assessing Intelligence
Adaptive Testing: Using Computers to Assess Performance
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Scoring Better on Standardized Tests
MODULE 27 Variations in Intellectual Ability
Mental Retardation (Intellectual Disabilities)
PSYCHWORK: Director of Special Education
The Intellectually Gifted
MODULE 28 Group Differences in Intelligence: Genetic and Environmental Determinants
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: The Relative Influence of Genetics and Environment: Nature, Nurture, and IQ
CHAPTER 10 Motivation and Emotion
MODULE 29 Explaining Motivation
Instinct Approaches: Born to Be Motivated
Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying Our Needs
Arousal Approaches: Beyond Drive Reduction
Incentive Approaches: Motivation’s Pull
Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering Motivational Needs
Applying the Different Approaches to Motivation
MODULE 30 Human Needs and Motivation: Eat, Drink, and Be Daring
The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating
Social Factors in Eating
PSYCHWORK: Nutritionist
Eating Disorders
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Cognitive Processing in Anorexic Patients
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Dieting and Losing Weight Successfully
The Need for Achievement: Striving for Success
The Need for Affiliation: Striving for Friendship
The Need for Power: Striving for Impact on Others
MODULE 31 Understanding Emotional Experiences
The Functions of Emotions
Determining the Range of Emotions: Labeling Our Feelings
The Roots of Emotions
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly?
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY: Smiling Athletes: Do Their Facial Expressions Come Naturally?
CHAPTER 11 Sexuality and Gender
MODULE 32 Gender and Sex
Gender Roles: Society’s Expectations for Women and Men
Sexism on the Job
Gender Differences: More Similar than Dissimilar
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: When Brain and Socialization Meet
Sources of Gender Differences: Where Biology and Society Meet
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY: Trucks and Dolls: Does Fetal Exposure to Testosterone Affect How Children Play?
MODULE 33 Understanding Human Sexual Response: The Facts of Life
The Basic Biology of Sexual Behavior
Psychological Aspects of Sexual Excitement: What Turns People On?
The Phases of Sexual Response: The Ups and Downs of Sex
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Female Circumcision: A Celebration of Culture—or Genital Mutilation?
MODULE 34 The Diversity of Sexual Behavior
Approaches to Sexual Normality
Surveying Sexual Behavior: What’s Happening Behind Closed Doors?
Heterosexuality
Homosexuality and Bisexuality
Transsexualism
Sexual Difficulties
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Lowering the Risks of Date Rape
CHAPTER 12 Development
MODULE 35 Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue
Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture
Developmental Research Techniques
MODULE 36 Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth
The Basics of Genetics
The Earliest Development
MODULE 37 Infancy and Childhood
The Extraordinary Newborn
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Young Infants Recognize Emotions Early in Life
Infancy Through Childhood
PSYCHWORK: Child Protection Caseworker
MODULE 38 Adolescence: Becoming an Adult
Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent
Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong
Social Development: Finding One’s Self in a Social World
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Rites of Passage: Coming of Age Around the World
MODULE 39 Adulthood
Physical Development: The Peak of Health
Social Development: Working at Life
Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties
Changing Roles of Men and Women
The Later Years of Life: Growing Old
Physical Changes in Late Adulthood: The Aging Body
