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[N. Gregory(N. Gregory Mankiw) Mankiw] Principles (BookFi)

inflation tax.
The inflation tax is not exactly like other taxes, however, because no
one receives a bill from the government for this tax. Instead, the inflation tax is
more subtle. When the government prints money, the price level rises, and the dol-
lars in your wallet are less valuable. Thus, 
the inflation tax is like a tax on everyone
who holds money.
The importance of the inflation tax varies from country to country and over
time. In the United States in recent years, the inflation tax has been a trivial source
of revenue: It has accounted for less than 3 percent of government revenue. Dur-
ing the 1770s, however, the Continental Congress of the fledgling United States re-
lied heavily on the inflation tax to pay for military spending. Because the new
government had a limited ability to raise funds through regular taxes or borrow-
ing, printing dollars was the easiest way to pay the American soldiers. As the
quantity theory predicts, the result was a high rate of inflation: Prices measured in
terms of the continental dollar rose more than 100-fold over a few years.
Almost all hyperinflations follow the same pattern as the hyperinflation dur-
ing the American Revolution. The government has high spending, inadequate tax
revenue, and limited ability to borrow. As a result, it turns to the printing press
to pay for its spending. The massive increases in the quantity of money lead to
i n f l a t i o n t a x
the revenue the government
raises by creating money
as inflation that exceeds 50 percent 
per month.
This means that the price level in-
creases more than 100-fold over the course of a year.
The data on hyperinflation show a clear link between the quantity of money
and the price level. Figure 28-4 graphs data from four classic hyperinflations
that occurred during the 1920s in Austria, Hungary, Germany, and Poland. Each
graph shows the quantity of money in the economy and an index of the price
level. The slope of the money line represents the rate at which the quantity of
money was growing, and the slope of the price line represents the inflation rate.
The steeper the lines, the higher the rates of money growth or inflation.
Notice that in each graph the quantity of money and the price level are al-
most parallel. In each instance, growth in the quantity of money is moderate at
first, and so is inflation. But over time, the quantity of money in the economy
starts growing faster and faster. At about the same time, inflation also takes off.
Then when the quantity of money stabilizes, the price level stabilizes as well.
These episodes illustrate well one of the 
Ten Principles of Economics:
Prices rise
when the government prints too much money.


C H A P T E R 2 8
M O N E Y G R O W T H A N D I N F L AT I O N
6 3 9
massive inflation. The inflation ends when the government institutes fiscal
reforms—such as cuts in government spending—that eliminate the need for the
inflation tax.
T H E F I S H E R E F F E C T
According to the principle of monetary neutrality, an increase in the rate of money
growth raises the rate of inflation but does not affect any real variable. An impor-
tant application of this principle concerns the effect of money on interest rates. In-
terest rates are important variables for macroeconomists to understand because
they link the economy of the present and the economy of the future through their
effects on saving and investment.
To understand the relationship between money, inflation, and interest rates,
recall from Chapter 23 the distinction between the nominal interest rate and the
real interest rate. The 
nominal interest rate
is the interest rate you hear about at your
bank. If you have a savings account, for instance, the nominal interest rate tells you
how fast the number of dollars in your account will rise over time. The 
real interest
rate
corrects the nominal interest rate for the effect of inflation in order to tell you
how fast the purchasing power of your savings account will rise over time. The
real interest rate is the nominal interest rate minus the inflation rate:
Real interest rate 
Nominal interest rate
Inflation rate.
W
HENEVER GOVERNMENTS FIND THEM
-
selves short of cash, they are tempted to
solve the problem simply by printing
some more. In 1998, Russian policy-
makers found this temptation hard to
resist, and the inflation rate rose to
more than 100 percent per year.

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