Kokand and Russia
Neither Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, nor India played a significant role in the political
life of the Kokand Khanate. The archives contain only a few mentions of Kokand-
Turkish diplomatic releations,
59
and in general Kokand’s links with these states
came mainly through trade. By contrast, Kokand had both diverse and intense
relations with Russia.
Alim Khan had made the first attempt to establish formal relations with Russia.
Responding to the khan’s invitation, the tsar sent an ambassador with a message
addressed to Alim Khan. When the Russian ambassador arrived in Turkestan, he
learned that Alim Khan had been murdered and his place taken by Umar Khan. In
1810 the Russian ambassador finally arrived in Kokand with the goal of establish-
ing friendly relations. Umar Khan reciprocated in 1812 by sending envoys to St.
Petersburg. On the return journey one ambassador died of disease and a second
was killed at Petropavlovsk. Eager to repair relations, the Russian government sent
Philip Nazarov to Kokand the following year.
During the reign of Muhammad Ali Khan (1822–1841), ambassadors from Ko-
kand made several trips to Russia. In 1825 we find Kokand’s governor in Tashkent
complaining to the governor-general of Western Siberia that the khanate’s ambas-
sador had not been let through. More successful exchanges occurred in 1828
60
and
1830.
61
In 1831, the khanate’s governor in Tashkent advised the khan to send an
ambassador to St. Petersburg
62
to seek engineers to inspect the khanate’s mines.
Significantly, he also proposed that the Russians be asked for both ordnance and
experienced military officers whom Kokand could “use them against the Chinese,
with whom the Kokand khan is at war.”
63
The Russians rejected the latter request,
because they did not want “to give the Chinese government cause for displeasure
(with Russia).”
64
Further complications arose. In the spring of 1834 the Tashkent governor attacked
some Kazakhs who were Russian subjects. In response the Russian government
organized a punitive squad under the command of the chief of staff of the Siberian
corps. This detachment marched to the Kokandi fortress of Ulutau, surrounded it,
made off with a herd of 110 horses, and captured five soldiers from Tashkent. One
of the prisoners was sent to the fortress with a demand of unconditional surrender.
When no reply came the Russians opened fire. Two hours later the garrison surren-
dered, captives were exchanged,
65
and there was every hope that Russian-Kokand
relations would settle down once more.
Muhammad Ali Khan, realizing the need to establish friendly relations with
Russia, sent another ambassador to St. Petersburg in 1841. When Muhammad Ali
abdicated, his younger brother, Sultan Mahmud, also reached out to St. Petersburg.
66
But in April 1842, Nasrullah, the emir of Bukhara, captured Kokand and executed
Sultan Mahmud Khan, Muhammad Ali, various dignitaries, and other members of
the royal family. Upon receiving this news, Kokand’s ambassador to Russia feared
for his life and approached no closer to Kokand than Semipalatinsk.
THE KOKAND KHANATE 45
Russia now seized the opportunity to take advantage of Kokand’s misfortunes. In
1852 General Lev Perovskii stormed the Kokand fortress of Ak-Mechet but failed.
A year later the Russians returned, having secretly planned a fresh campaign. Ar-
chival documents record that after a twenty-day siege Russian forces successfully
stormed the fortress of Ak-Mechet on July 28, 1953. The Russians lost only nine
soldiers, with forty-six wounded. According to a Russian participant, “the Kokand
people, claiming to be fully justified, defended desperately: out of 400 people
located in the fortress garrison, only 74 people were taken as prisoners and even
they were seriously wounded.” Some “326 others,” a Russian participant wrote,
“were killed by the activities of our cannonballs, grenades and missiles . . . , and
some of them were buried alive under the exploded walls, defending the fortress
to the end.”
67
After a further confrontation,
68
the Russians settled into Ak-Mechet
and renamed it Fort Perovskii.
After these events, the Kokand-Russian relationship became outwardly tranquil.
However, even as the Russian foreign ministry was proclaiming the onset of friendly
relations, Russia’s army officers were making quite different plans. Striking proof of
this can be found in a secret letter sent to the Siberian corps commander on October
12, 1856, which stated: “first of all, we need to consolidate our Cossack settlements
in the Zailiiskii area and bind to us the various tribes of mountain Kyrgyz by sup-
porting their dissatisfaction and hostility toward Kokand.”
69
In another letter the
same officer noted that the hostility to Kokand of one of the Kyrgyz sultans was
helpful to the tsar’s government; because he never refused to help the Russians, he
was rewarded with a gold medal and an honorary sultan’s robe.
70
A January 19, 1859 “Note” from G. Gosford, the Siberian corps commander
and governor-general of Western Siberia, titled “On the need to occupy the up-
per areas of the Chui River and related preliminary instructions,” mentioned that
Tsar Nicholas I had already considered this issue and accepted it before he died.
The former minister of war Prince Dolgorukii, Count Perovskii, and General of
the Infantry G., Gosford had all participated in the discussion of this note. They
unanimously concluded that Tokmak, Pishpek, Aulie-Ata, Suzak, and Turkestan,
with the lands adjoining them up to Syr Darya, should all be occupied. This would
connect the southern flank of Western Siberia with the Orenburg flank.
This same “Note” noted the accession to power of the new Kokand khan, Mal-
lya. Given that he “enjoys the trust of the people and has the reputation of a person
experienced in governmental affairs, it is important not to postpone for long the
aforementioned actions.” It therefore set 1861 as the absolute deadline for seizing the
territories in the upper Chui River Valley, at the same time expressing the hope that
this task would be accomplished “no later than 1860.”
71
Tsar Alexander participated in an advisory meeting on the Orenburg territory and
Western Siberia on January 24, 1859, and approved Gosford’s Note, which stated
that “the occupation of upper areas of the Chui River can take place no later than in
1860, provided the forthcoming reconnaissance turns up no insuperable obstacles
and that the mission itself will not require excessive expenditures.”
72
46 DUBOVITSKII, BABABEKOV
Sensing trouble, Mallya Khan tried to avoid all border conflicts with Russia. He
strictly forbade forays beyond the Russian border and ordered violators to be put
to death.
73
He also planned to send an ambassador to St. Petersburg in the spring
of 1859, but the tsar’s generals impeded this in every way, even seizing the ambas-
sador when he arrived at Fort Perovskii.
74
Finally, armed fighting broke out. On July 8, 1860, 3,000 Kokand troops tried
to attack the fortress at Kastek. However, the Russians had been alerted and killed
many of the attackers, who then withdrew.
75
A month later a detachment of Rus-
sian troops advanced on Tokmak in two columns. When they reached the fortress
the Russian commander demanded that the Kokandis surrender. Receiving no
response, he poured fifty cannonballs into the fort, pounding the defenders into
submission.
76
Days late the Russian troops besieged Pishpek. After undergoing
bombardment of their fortress for two days, the 665 defenders, including 38 young
children, surrendered.
77
The fortress was then leveled and the Russian commander
was promoted to the rank of major-general.
78
On June 21, 1861, Tsar Alexander II convened a meeting to examine Russia’s
actions in Central Asia. With regard to the Kokand Khanate, it was agreed that
Russia, for strategic and political reasons, should advance across the border into
Kokand’s territory in order to secure a natural boundary. Since it was an inop-
portune time to move Russian troops deep into the khanate, it was decided to seek
more amicable relations with Kokand, at the same time recognizing that “peaceful
relations with the people of Kokand were [merely] a truce, not positively limit-
ing us to the Chui River as a border, and without constraining our plans for the
future.”
79
Notwithstanding these cautious sentiments, on January 20, 1862, after a
fifteen-hour blockade and stubborn battle, Russian troops captured and destroyed
the Kokand fortress of Din-Kurgan.
80
Four months later Russian forces troops oc-
cupied, without a fight, the fortresses of Aq-Su, Pish-Tyube, and Chaldovar.
81
Taking
advantage of internal strife in the Kokand Khanate, they next moved on the towns
of Turkestan, Suzak and Chulak-Kurgan. At the same time the Beshtamgalinskii
tribe of Kazakhs surrendered,
82
leaving Russia in control of a vast swath of former
Kokand territory. A historian once noted that eight centuries earlier Hodja Ahmad
Yassavi had written that the Russians would seize the city of Turkestan in the year
1281 of the Hijri, or 1864
ce
.
83
As further described in the historian’s manuscript,
Kokand would try to recapture Turkestan, but would not succeed. Now Russia had
fulfilled this prophesy. In the same year Russian troops conquered Chimkent and
came close to Tashkent.
The Russian general M.G. Cherniaev reported on December 28, 1864 that people
in Chimkent had grown displeased with the Kokand military leadership, as well as
with one of the most important Kokandi officials in Tashkent, Abdurakhman Bek,
who governed half the city. Clearly the level of dissatisfaction in Tashkent was
rising, as the Tashkent “Kyrgyz” (i.e., Kazakhs) began to place themselves under
the Russians’ protection. As they did this, Cherniaev asked the minister of war what
he should do if a revolution were to break out and residents were to ask for help.
84
THE KOKAND KHANATE 47
To this the minister replied that Cherniaev should do nothing until reinforcements
arrived, but that he also should “not deprive them of hope for help in time.”
85
Events, however, unfolded more quickly than the minister anticipated, with
Cherniaev moving almost immediately “to constrain Tashkent, and put it in direct
and immediate dependence on us.”
86
He accomplished this by first draining the two
main rivers that supplied Tashkent and surrounding environs with water. Then he
moved his forces closer to the city, while awaiting word that pro-Russian forces
from within the city had disarmed the Kokand garrison and opened the city gates to
Russian troops. But on the same day Alimkul arrived in Tashkent from Kokand with
6,000 troops and 40 guns, thus preventing the planned treason. On May 9 the tsar’s
forces engaged the Kokand army in battle, leading to the deaths of 300 Kokandis
as well as their leader, Ali Kuli. The Russians suffered only ten wounded.
87
A month later (July 14–15) Cherniaev’s forces again attacked Tashkent, this
time successfully storming the city and its citadel while losing only 135 soldiers
in the fighting.
88
When the shooting died down, the elders came out to surrender
and promised to bring leading citizens to meet with the Russians on the next day.
However, that same evening the populace of Tashkent began shooting again, throw-
ing up barricades on streets and intersections and mounting a desperate resistance.
Cherniaev later reported that “There were cases when one or two men with oyboltas
(long-handled axes) threw themselves on an entire company, dying on the bayo-
nets without seeking mercy. . . . Each hut had to be taken with bayonets, and was
cleared only when everyone within had been killed.”
89
By the evening of June 16
the streets finally had been cleared, and the next day the elders ( aksakals) and local
dignitaries met with Cherniaev to express their obedience to Russia.
Cherniaev’s memoirs are of particular value, as they help to reveal aspects of
the Kokand-Russian relations in the 1860s, and the personal attitudes of the tsar’s
generals that cannot be found in official documents.
Thus, Cherniaev for instance narrates that he petitioned Minister of War
Vasilchikov to assign him to Orenburg, which was granted. At just this time N.A.
Kryzhanovskii had just been appointed governor-general of Orenburg.
As Cherniaev recalls:
He [Kryzhanovskii] badly wanted to seize Tashkent. To this end he wrote me very
kind letters, asked me to wait until he arrived, and so on. But this was impossible
because the forces from Bukhara were certain to move toward Tashkent. For two
months I walked around the walls of the city, my plan being to force [the Tashkent
forces] to scatter their forces along the entire length of the walls. In this I suc-
ceeded. Finally, leaving the lanterns burning at our camp site, we wrapped the
wheels of our cannon with felt and travelled ten versts to the gates we intended
to assault. At dawn the next day we stumbled upon a guard detachment outside
the fortress. They were asleep and we killed them all, not allowing them to ut-
ter a sound. Then we put in place the scaling ladders and immediately climbed
the walls to the left and right of the gates. I sent Colonel Kraevskii to attack the
citadel, and Abramov opened the gates for him. The people of Tashkent mounted
a defense on their curving streets. I realized that there was no alternative but to
48 DUBOVITSKII, BABABEKOV
set fire to the streets along the route to the market. The Kokand garrison fled to
the gates opposite, where 15,000 people had assembled. I instructed Abramov,
as he moved along the fortification wall, to waste no time over the rivets [hold-
ing them in place] and to throw the defensive cannon outside the wall. Later we
gathered them all, and got back our two our two cannons as well.
As generally is the case in Asian cities, Tashkent had an elected municipal
government. These people are in general very intelligent, and are not cowards.
Beyond the walls they are brave, but carefree. They had a sultan, the son of the
Kyrgyz (Kazakh) Batyr Kenisary Kasymov, whom they had designated com-
mander in chief. He is a dashing horseman. They succeeded in mounting a few
raids but Kasymov did not have a sound strategy. Instead of arranging a single
chain of troops along the city’s wall and keeping a reserve in the interior, he
placed all his forces on the wall.
Kryzhanovskii wanted to seize Tashkent immediately and all by himself, and this
is why he was so greatly annoyed with me. He had visited us September on his way
to Tashkent from Orenburg. While inspecting the troops he yelled to them that, “You
need brooms, not guns!” Kryzhanovskii wanted to mark his arrival with some fresh
act of heroism and therefore proposed to march at once against Kokand. Indeed,
Kokand had indeed been weakened after the emir of Bukhara captured and ransacked
it, killing many people. After naming a relative to be khan, he returned to Bukhara.
But the fact of the matter is that I had at hand an army of only 1,100. How could I
leave the city of Tashkent, which had just been conquered, to the mercy of fate?
Moreover, our forces were tired and in need of rest to consolidate their strength.
It was under these circumstances that Kryzhanovskii sent Romanovskii to ask me
if we could mount an expedition to Kokand. I told him “Do as you wish, but in
this case, I will ask for permission to leave. You will doubtless achieve success
there but you will win and leave. How am I to remain here until summer without
any reinforcements?”
90
For his capture of Tashkent, General Cherniaev was assigned a lifetime pension
of 3,000 rubles.
91
In 1867 a general-governorship was created for the conquered territories, and in
the following year a team of experts was assembled from various departments of the
Russian government to gather all available information on the Khanate of Kokand.
The new governor-general of Turkestan, K.P. Kaufman, was very pleased, noting
that “the heterogeneous information and data collected by these individuals signifi-
cantly enriches our lean supply of knowledge about this province.”
92
According to
this study, the people of Kokand were divided into pro- and anti-Russian parties.
The khan himself led the pro-Russian faction, although he did not say so publicly
for fear of antagonizing his opponents. Opposing the Russians was the general
public, which feared that their khan would yield to a bribe from General Kaufman
and sell the khanate to the Russian government.
93
A treaty concluded in 1868 established “friendly relations” between Kokand
and Russia, with an exchange of ambassadors and a growth in trade. But one
analyst, N. Raevskii, considered these “friendly relations” nothing more than
misleading rhetoric:
THE KOKAND KHANATE 49
Without even mentioning Muslim fanaticism, which the Central Asian leaders
are full of, and which the Muslim clergy feeds to the nation, let us not forget
that in the last eight or nine years we [Russians] seized most of their territories
and reduced them from the status of powerful and independent rulers to that of
vassals. Can one really expect their defeated and humiliated leaders to harbor
“friendly” feelings toward those to whom they owe their humiliation? Let us not
delude ourselves: the rulers and their subjects hate us equally, and even if the
former sometimes pretend to be our friends, it is only because they are forced
by circumstances to do so, but the insincerity of their assurances is proven by
much evidence.
94
In 1873 the Khanate of Kokand was rocked by a massive rebellion against the
khan and his brutal exploitations. Khudayar Khan, increasingly desperate as the
revolt dragged on, finally requested military assistance from Russia. When the
rebels approached the capital in the company of Pulat Khan, a pretender of Kyrgyz
ethnicity, Khudayar Khan grew fearful that the Russian troops would not arrive in
time to save him; accordingly, on July 22, 1875, he fled to Tashkent.
Khudayar’s son Nasreddin Bek was immediately proclaimed khan, but the re-
sentful pretender Pulat Khan gathered an army of Kyrgyz to seize the throne. This
put Kokand under the rule of a highly unstable diarchy, with civil war a possibility
at any time unless the warring factions could somehow be brought together under
a single banner. That unifying cause turned out to be a jihad against the Russian
colonizers. Just such a jihad was declared in the name of Nasreddin Khan, and the
united Kokandis called all Muslims to raise a holy war to liberate the Khanate of
Kokand from the Russians and restore the old borders.
As a Muslim, Pulat Khan had no choice but to support this appeal, although he
tried not to involve himself in fighting with Russian troops. On August 7, 1875,
some 10,000 Kokand forces arrived in the southern outskirts of Tashkent. General
Kaufman immediately sent an infantry battalion, cavalry, and 400 Kazaks into
the field against them.
95
He also gave orders to distribute weapons to the Russian
residents of Tashkent.
96
That same day, Kaufman sent a telegram to the minister seeking authorization to
pursue the enemy, plus a line of credit for 100,000 rubles to pay for the campaign.
97
The tsar himself approved the requests, and soon a large force of heavily armed and
rigorously trained Russian troops set out in pursuit of the hastily formed militia of
the popular liberation movement. On August 22, 1875 a major battle occurred near
the town of Makhram. Several thousand Kokandis were killed, as the Muslim army
suffered a major defeat. General Kaufman later wrote the minister of war that the
“Makhram Massacre” had determined the fate of the Khanate of Kokand.
Russian forces then occupied Margilan and Kokand itself, in the process meet-
ing only sporadic resistance. Arriving in Margilan, Kaufman received a delegation
of citizens and imposed on them a formidable retribution sum of half a million
rubles. Days later he commanded Nasreddin Khan to Margilan and levied a stag-
gering retribution on the entire khanate, a sum so large that it virtually enslaved
50 DUBOVITSKII, BABABEKOV
the population, particularly the poor farmers and townspeople. Learning of this,
the entire region exploded in rebellion. A new phase of the uprising, this time a
classic national liberation movement, now began.
The main rebel forces, led by Pulat Khan and strongly supported by the populace,
were concentrated in Andijan, against which the Russian command promptly organized
a punitive expedition. The Russian major-general in charge of this campaign boasted,
“If they propose to receive us with hospitality I will not accept it. I plan instead to fire
a few grenades.” And if, as he hoped, they should capture a figure who had rebelled
against the Russians, “I think it would be useful to hang him in Andijan.”
98
In contrast
to this highly personalized view of the conflict, another officer, A. Kuhn, reported that
“the factors that caused the unrest, I am deeply convinced, were unrelated to us.”
99
On October 1, 1875, Russian troops took Andijan by storm. During the defense
of the city several thousand rebels died, many of them women, children, and the
elderly. The tsar’s forces suffered 66 dead and wounded.
100
Nine days later in
Kokand a huge band of residents of Kokand attacked the khan’s palace, although
Nasreddin Khan himself managed to escape.
101
Meanwhile a seasoned Central Asia hand, M.D. Skobelev, had been elevated to
the rank of major general. He eagerly sought to celebrate his promotion by launch-
ing a raid to regain the right bank of the Syr Darya from the rebels. Hoping to lure
the rebel forces to the city of Namangan and crush them, he withdrew his troops
from the city and retired to the nearby mountains. The rebels thereupon entered
Namangan. Then on October 26 Skobelev bombarded the city with sixteen cannons,
killing several thousand, and retook Namangan. Two weeks later Russian troops
defeated another rebel force at nearby Balikchi. Then, on November 8 the people
of Matcho decided to join the Kokand rebellion, but a punitive detachment under
Staff Captain Arandarenko ruthlessly suppressed their rebellion.
The rebels fought desperately. Ten days after the fighting at Matcho a Russian
squadron approaching the village of Ashaba encountered shooting from behind the
village’s walls. After a hard exchange of fire, the infantry stormed the settlement.
Residents died with guns in their hands; women armed with knives threw them-
selves at the soldiers and hurled stones at them. In the end, the entire population
was killed and the village burned down.
Meanwhile, General M.D. Skobelev received permission to conduct a winter
expedition to Ikki Su-Arasi in the eastern Ferghana. The insurgents found out about
this and prepared to confront Skobelev at Andijan. On January 8, 1876, Skobelev
overwhelmed the rebels. Documents from the time record that Russian forces
killed some 20,000 insurgents and residents of the city.
102
Yet the rebels continued
to mount armed resistance. Meanwhile, on January 16, 1876 the minister of war
sent Kaufman a confidential letter that determined the fate of the Kokand Khanate:
“His Majesty,” Miliutin related, “deigned to allow the occupation of the rest of
the Kokand Khanate whenever you consider it inevitable.”
103
K.P. Kaufman, the
governor-general of Turkestan, was at the time in St. Petersburg. As soon as the
tsar approved it, Kaufman set out to conquer the Khanate of Kokand.
THE KOKAND KHANATE 51
Meanwhile, on January 18 Russian forces destroyed detachments of rebels near
the village of Asaka, after which one of the leaders of the rebellion, Abdurakhman
Bek, and his subordinates surrendered to Skobelev and disbanded their militia. This
freed the Russians to hunt down and defeat Pulat Khan, which they accomplished
at the village of Uch-Kurgan. Official documents confirm that the rebels suffered
overwhelming damage. All the infantry protecting Pulat Khan were killed, part of
his cavalry was destroyed, and the rest put to flight. Pulat Khan himself escaped.
Russian losses were negligible.
104
On January 30, 1876 Nasreddin Bek arrived in Kokand and was proclaimed
khan before a disapproving public. Days later Kaufman telegraphed from St.
Petersburg to the commander of the troops in Turkestan, Major-General Kol-
pakovskii: “at the request of the people of Kokand for Russian citizenship, and
seeing no other way to calm the population, the Sovereign Emperor deigns to
order you to receive the khanate into His Majesty’s realm, thus allowing you
to occupy the khanate with troops . . . The former Khanate of Kokand will be
renamed ‘the Ferghana region’ and I appoint Skobelev as its head. Nasreddin is
to be sent to Tashkent.”
105
Thus, on February 19, 1876 General Kaufman presented the Kokand Khanate
to Alexander II as a gift honoring the tenth anniversary of his reign. However, by
now few Kokandis were willing to take Russian citizenship. As Skobelev reported,
“In the Kokand Khanate there are three factions: the merchants, who have long
constituted the pro-Russian party and certainly wish to join Russia; the powerful
clergy and general public, both of which oppose doing so; and Nasreddin’s sup-
porters, who also oppose doing so.”
106
The proclamation of Nasreddin as khan caused confusion among the Russians.
Baron Nolde, head of the Khujand region, asked permission “to send a small native
delegation to Nasreddin to congratulate him.”
107
Skobelev, who had not yet received
the order to occupy the khanate, urged instead “to immediately set up government
that is under our direct supervision, or to occupy the khanate with our troops.”
108
But for his part, Kaufman telegrammed back that “There is no guarantee that the
accession of Nasreddin to the throne in Kokand will appease the khanate, which
is why no changes are to be made.”
109
Kolpakovskii received repeated instructions from Kaufman on the need to
occupy the Kokand Khanate. He in turn told Skobelev to approach Kokand from
the southwest and inform the public that “the Great Sovereign has accepted them
into Russian citizenship.”
110
Otherwise however he did not take action. Sensing
Kolpakovskii’s hesitation, Kaufman telegraphed General Skobelev on February
5 to move his squadron immediately to Kokand. At a meeting two days later
Nasreddin Khan acceded to Alexander’s will, and the next day the Russian army
entered Kokand. According to General Kolpakovskii, “the people of Kokand
on the streets met the news about Kokand’s accession to Russia without enthu-
siasm.”
111
Within two weeks the other leaders of the rebellion, including Pulat
Khan, had all been arrested.
52 DUBOVITSKII, BABABEKOV
On February 19, 1876, the minister of war announced that the tsar had ordered:
1. That former territories of the Kokand Khanate occupied by Russian
troops were now incorporated into the Russian Empire as a new “Fer-
ghana region.”
2. That management of this new region will be entrusted to the governor
general of Turkestan.
3. That all levies against the region’s population are to be devoted to offset-
ting the cost of administering the new territories.
112
Following the conquest and abolition of the Khanate of Kokand, the Russian gener-
als focused on suppressing the remaining resistance. By March they had captured and
hanged Pulat Khan at Margilan. But the Kyrgyz continued to offer serious resistance.
Fighting broke out again between the Russians and rebels, most of whom were Kyrgyz
from the Alai Mountains and the remainder Uzbeks, Tajiks, and Kipchaks. The Rus-
sian generals engaged turncoat Kyrgyz and Kazakh horsemen on their side, sending
them out in squads from Margilan and elsewhere to engage the rebels. But the rebels
succeeded in killing or capturing large numbers of these jigits.
On April 25, up to 1,500 troops of the rebel forces engaged General Skobelev’s
army in a fierce battle in the canyon of Yangi-Aryk, twenty-five versts away from
Gulcha.
113
On this occasion the rebels suffered heavy losses, but that did not cut
short the Alai War or make it any less difficult for the Russians. Similar other such
clashes continued for several months. In the end, General Skobelev had to meet
personally with one of the leading rebels, a woman named Kurbanjan-Dadhah;
Skobelev agreed not to prosecute the rebels, to release Alai Kyrgyz prisoners, and
to allow her sons free return. Only then, in January 1877, was General Kaufman
able to telegraph St. Petersburg and report that victory had been achieved.
Describing these events in his memoirs, Kaufman observed that had the Russians
been fighting only the khan, who was of no significance to the people of Kokand,
they would have achieved victory immediately after the battle at Makhram and
the occupation of the city of Kokand. But the fight was not with the khan, whose
forces left the field after the Russians occupied Tashkent and Kurama.
114
Instead,
the Russians faced a committed national movement, which was by no means so
easily crushed. Never before in Central Asia had the tsar’s troops been forced to
endure so long and arduous a struggle.
Nor did the struggle end with the crushing of the 1873–76 revolt. Individual
members of the uprising remained committed to their cause and prepared to continue
their active and armed battle through other means. They succeeded in raising upris-
ings against the Russian occupation in 1882, 1885, 1892, and 1898. In each case
the colonial power itself generated support for the rebel cause through its ruthless
exploitation of the local population. Archival documents suggest that for the first
years after the conquest most residents of the Ferghana region respected and honored
the Russians. But after 1884 taxes in the Syr Darya district rose by 100 percent.
Small farmers went bankrupt, leading to a dramatic reduction in their standard of
THE KOKAND KHANATE 53
living. Moreover, colonial administrators increasingly abused their powers over
the local populace, cruelly suppressing the slightest manifestations of discontent.
As this went on, indignation and resistance spread among the population.
115
At the same time, significant advances occurred in a number of areas. For one
thing, the fratricidal wars that had claimed hundreds of thousands of innocent lives
were permanently discontinued. Slavery was abolished and large numbers of the
nomadic population adopted a sedentary mode of life.
Local people also gained the opportunity to familiarize themselves with Euro-
pean and world culture. Typical of this was the French Corsican M. Aloise, who in
1882 taught five students in Ferghana how to use the microscope. Under Aloise’s
leadership, a science textbook on How to Utilize the Breeding Method of Silkworms
was published in the Uzbek language. Aloise also opened a school for silkworm
breeders in Kokand. At the same time Russian doctors began to develop health care
in the region, setting up small hospitals and clinics that began to institute preventive
care and provide medical assistance to the local population. Postal and telegraph
communications also were introduced, with telephone, radio, and electricity soon
to follow. Newly constructed railways played a positive role in the development of
industry and the regional economy. Cotton gins, creameries and other enterprises
also opened. Wide-ranging geological explorations were carried out, leading to the
development of mineral resources. As the local population began to take jobs in
factories and other enterprises, a working class began to emerge.
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