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Educating the Student Body
room cleaning. For parents the average cost for after-school programs is 
$67.00 per week, a $20.00 increase over the past 5 years (Afterschool 
Alliance, 2009). Thus, public funds are needed to defray some of these costs 
to schools and families.
In addition, the inability of an after-school program to provide trans-
portation home is a major barrier to participation for a large number of 
students. Programs have an advantage in recruiting participants when 
operating in schools where a majority of the students live within safe walk-
ing distance (in particular, urban city schools) (Grossman et al., 2001). For 
children not living within walking distance of school, busing is an alterna-
tive, but the limited supply of buses and drivers, as well as their cost, is a 
major barrier. There are substantial negative consequences of inadequate 
transportation. Youth who live beyond walking distance from their school 
and who cannot be picked up by a parent or adult at the designated time are 
unable to participate in programs. For schools that can provide busing for 
after-school programs, the number of seats available on those buses limits 
the number of children who can participate. Even when children live within 
walking distance of their school, many parents feel uncomfortable about 
their child walking home alone in the dark at 5:00 or 6:00 PM. School 
districts have struggled with easing this transportation problem. Money has 
been unavailable in schools’ budgets, or there have been restrictions on how 
transit money can be spent. For example, some school districts give trans-
portation funding only to academic programs, and after-school programs 
are considered nonacademic. 
Staff training is another concern for after-school programs. If training 
does occur, it is often in house. Existing training programs tend to focus on 
games and to use prepackaged materials, and they fail to address promotion 
of physical activity (Ajja et al., 2012; Weaver et al., 2012).
Differences in Opportunities in After-School Programs
In addition to providing children with enrichment opportunities, 
a key factor behind the policy interest in after-school programs is the 
increasing need for child care. Almost all adults agree that elementary 
school children need adult supervision. Young people aged 10-14 are often 
seen as old enough to stay on their own for short periods of time, but they 
are also old enough to get into serious trouble. Unfortunately, these older 
children are much less likely to participate in supervised after-school pro-
grams, whether the programs take place at youth-serving organizations or 
at school. It is easier to recruit elementary school children to these programs 
than middle and high school students, who tend to have busier schedules, 
increased responsibilities, and greater freedom (Grossman et al., 2001). 
Grossman and colleagues also found that 30 percent of enrollees in after-

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Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
Approaches to Physical Activity in Schools
 
301
school programs were in 3rd grade or lower, 45 percent were in 4th through 
6th grades, 23 percent were in 7th and 8th grades, and only 2 percent were 
in 9th grade or higher. Additionally, elementary-age children who enrolled 
attended more frequently than older youth. 
SUMMARY
In addition to physical education, schools can offer students non-
instructional opportunities to engage in beneficial physical activity before, 
during, or after the school day. These opportunities take various forms, 
such as interscholastic sports teams, intramural sport clubs, recess, and in-
class physical activity breaks. Interscholastic sports provide opportunities 
for students with athletic talent. But budgetary constraints, team-cut poli-
cies, transportation, lack of facilities, and pay-to-play policies and practices 
in many high schools may limit participation. Intramural sports clubs in 
middle and high schools are a viable way for the majority of children to 
engage in in-school or after-school physical activities. Research data con-
sistently show, however, that although these programs can serve a large 
number of children, not every child will opt to participate or be able to 
find transportation home after an activity. Recess and classroom physical 
activity breaks have become valuable opportunities for elementary school 
students to be active during the school day. Their value in middle and high 
schools is questionable when they are combined with lunch, and at the 
secondary level classroom activity breaks are lost to valuable and limited 
academic time. Evidence supporting the integration of physical activity 
into academic lessons does exist but only for elementary schools. Given the 
nature of institutionalized education and its emphasis on academic achieve-
ment, it is unclear that the approach will be embraced by school officials 
and most classroom teachers.
One consensus from the literature is that, to take advantage of and 
enhance the many opportunities for physical activity outside of physical 
education, policy makers and practitioners must acknowledge the anchor 
function of physical education (National Physical Activity Plan, 2010). 
Curriculum time is insufficient for all of the recommended 60 minutes or 
more of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity to take place dur-
ing physical education, so the activity in which children engage throughout 
the school day is important. Therefore, a holistic, comprehensive approach 
is increasingly being advocated to promote physical activity in schools. 
School environments encourage more physical activity, both before and 
after school, if they include well-designed playgrounds; open spaces; 
and facilities and equipment that are available, accessible, and inviting to 
children. AAHPERD’s CSPAP program can serve as an example. It provides 
opportunities anchored in the knowledge and skills learned in physical 

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Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
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