virtual bank
, a bank that has no physical location but
rather exists only in cyberspace. In 1995, Security First Network Bank, based in
Atlanta but now owned by Royal Bank of Canada, became the first virtual bank,
offering an array of banking services on the Internet
accepting chequing
account and savings deposits, selling certificates of deposit, issuing ATM cards,
providing bill-paying facilities, and so on. The virtual bank thus takes home bank-
ing one step further, enabling customers to have a full set of banking services at
home 24 hours a day. In 1996, Bank of America and Wells Fargo entered the vir-
tual banking market, to be followed by many others, with Bank of America now
being the largest Internet bank in the United States. Will virtual banking be the
predominant form of banking in the future? (See the Global box, Will Clicks
Dominate Bricks in the Banking Industry?)
JUNK BONDS
Before the advent of computers and advanced telecommunica-
tions, it was difficult to acquire information about the financial situation of firms
that might want to sell securities. Because of the difficulty in screening out bad
from good credit risks, the only firms that were able to sell bonds were very well-
established corporations that had high credit ratings.
2
Before the 1980s, then, only
corporations that could issue bonds with ratings of BBB or above could raise funds
by selling newly issued bonds. Some firms that had fallen on bad times, so-called
fallen angels,
had previously issued long-term corporate bonds that now had
ratings that had fallen below BBB, bonds that were pejoratively dubbed junk
bonds.
With the improvement in information technology in the 1970s, it became eas-
ier for investors to acquire financial information about corporations, making it
easier to screen out bad from good credit risks. With easier screening, investors
were more willing to buy long-term debt securities from less well-known corpo-
rations with lower credit ratings. With this change in supply conditions, we would
expect that some smart individual would pioneer the concept of selling new pub-
lic issues of junk bonds, not for fallen angels but for companies that had not yet
achieved investment-grade status. This is exactly what Michael Milken of Drexel
Burnham Lambert, an investment-banking firm, started to do in 1977. Junk bonds
became an important factor in the corporate bond market. Although there was a
sharp slowdown in activity in the junk bond market after Milken was indicted for
securities law violations in 1989, it heated up again in the 1990s and 2000.
C H A P T E R 1 1
Banking Industry: Structure and Competition
261
2
The discussion of adverse selection problems in Chapter 8 provides a more detailed analysis of why
only well-established firms with high credit ratings were able to sell securities.
262
PA R T I I I
Financial Institutions
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