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NINETEENTH CENTURY GLOBALIZATION AND KHIVA: 
MADDER MATTERS 
 
Alisher Khaliyarov, PhD Candidate Department of History 
The Ohio State University, USA 
 
The 19
th
century witnessed the globalization of textile manufacturing and cotton 
production after the transformation of the field by the Industrial Revolution. The industrialization 
of textile manufacturing and massive production of textile fabrics increased global demand for 
cotton and dyes, particularly thedemand for madder (rubiatinctorium) root, the main ingredient 
of Turkey red–a dark red color, increased dramatically during the 19
th
century. As demand for 
madder dyes increased, madder cultivation became a profitable cash cropand began growingin 
parts of Africa, Europe, and the Middle East. At the beginning of the 19
th
century, madder 
cultivation spread to the Caspian region and Central Asia as well. Within a few decades after its 
introduction, madder became a major cash crop and main export commodity in Khiva. As the 
global presence of madder cultivation and trade increased throughout the world, it introduced 
Khiva to global textile manufacturers as the main producer of madder. 
However, scholars have long considered Central Asia prior to the colonial period as 
largely external to globalizing processes. In particular, Central Asia was portrayed as being 
in―decline‖ and ―isolated‖ from global processes during the modern period.
1
Especially, Khanate 
of Khiva, surrounded with arid zone and deserts, often described as isolated oasis state in the 
historiography of Central Asia. However, more recent worksdemonstratethat Central Asian states 
closely connected to global economic processes and external economic factors played an 
important role in precolonial Central Asian history.
2
Contributing to this research on Central 
Asia, I argue thatKhivan Khanate was closely connected to the global trade on dyes, especially 
trade on madder, a global product, became an importantcash crop in Khiva. As global demand 
for madder rose during the early decades of the 19
th
century, merchants of the Khanate started 
producing madder root and by the middle of the century, Khanate became the largest madder 
producer in the region. By demonstrating the process of madder trade, I attempt to show how 
Khiva was a part of global processes in the 19
th
century. 
1
VasiliyBarthold, Four Studies on the History of Central Asia, Vol. 1, (Leiden: Brill, 1956): 65-66. 
2
James Millward, Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864 (Stanford: 
Stanford University Press, 1998); Scott Levi, Rise and Fall of Qoqand 1709-1876: Central Asia in the Global Age. 
(Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press, 2017) 

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25 
The popularization of Turkey red color in Europeduring the 18
th
century triggered 
globaldemand for madder root cultivation.
3
The complicated process of preparation of the turkey 
red color, with multiple steps of dyeing and drying, made the dyeing commodity expensive in the 
world market. However,French scientists discovered the secret of Turkey red color, the multiple 
layers of dyeing process of cotton fabric with madder root alizarin in 1770s.
4
Since then, local 
production of Turkey red color continued in Europe and became quite popular in the booming 
textile industry. The popularization of dark red color increased worldwide demand of madder 
root production, and starting from the early 19
th
century, madder production became a lucrative 
cash crop. 
The Russian textile industry development came later than the one in Europe but the scale 
of Russian imports of madder was huge. Starting from the early 19
th
century, Russian madder 
imports increased 5 times making it 166,000poods in 1840.
5
In the 1850s, Russia became one of 
the biggest world madder importers.
6
The 19
th
century Russian textile and leather industry boom 
demanded more dyeing product and almost 90% of its dye products came through European 
ports. However, in order to decrease the dependency to world market, Russian authorities tried to 
localize the madder cultivation. Initially, the localization of madder cultivation started in the 
Caucasus and expanded into southern Russian imperial territories.
7
Madderwas knownin CentralAsialong before than its global popularization as a primary 
source of Turkey red color in late 18
th
century. According to Al-Beruniy, madder root was 
known in Central Asia, especially in Balkh since the 10
th
century. The best madder root came 
from Caucasus and Iranian territoriesand used formaking ink for writing.
8
In his memoirs, Babur 
informs us that madder was widely produced in present-day Afghanistanand exported to India.
9
Furthermore, madder was also an important component of traditional medicine in Central Asia. 
Colors extracted from madder root were very diverse and it provided bright yellow, orange, 
orange red, red and bright red colors depending on process of extraction. Central Asian ikats and 
Turkmen rugs were popular with their unique pattern and color. 
As global demand for madder root increased, local madder cultivation for the purpose of 
export and cash crop flourished around the Caspian territories including Derbent. Khivan 
merchants who were trading in the Caspian Region must have realized the trade potential of the 
product immediately. The madder was introduced as an important cash crop and its cultivation 
started around the 1810s in Khiva. According to NikolayMurav‘ev, the Russian military envoy to 
Khiva in 1819,madder growing started recently in Khiva. He described it as ―a quite new article 
to the Khivans.‖
10
He also mentioned that Khivan merchants already began exporting the 
3
John Stenhouse and Charles Groves,Dyeing and Calico printing(Manchester: Palmer and Howe, 1878), 65 
4
Robert Chenciner, Madder Red A History of Luxury and trade. (Richmond: Curzon Press,2000), 187;Johan Schot, 
―Technology in Decline: A Search for Useful Concepts, The British Journal for the History of Science,‖Organic