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   Overview of the literature study



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6.1.2    Overview of the literature study 
 
The study of women and leadership/management is a recent phenomenon chiefly 
because, historically, leadership has been concerned with the study of political leadership. 
Most leadership research prior to the 1980s was carried out by men and dealt exclusively 
with male leaders (2.3.2). Many studies on women in leadership and management have 
focused mainly on the barriers that prevent them from advancing to senior management 
roles within organisations (1.1). Little or no research has examined the experiences of the 
women who have overcome these barriers and moved into middle or senior management 
positions although it is acknowledged that women are often clustered in middle 
management positions (1.1, 2.3.2). This study has focused on women in middle 
management in the academe and their experiences with regards to the challenges, 
opportunities, constraints, roles and responsibilities associated with the position of HoD 
in a university. The female experience is worth investigating, particularly because 
research has indicated the value of the female perspective to leadership and management 
(1.1.1, 2.3). 
 
The current climate of restructuring and transformation in universities has important 
implications for the HoD, the most inevitable being role conflict and ensuing tensions 
(1.1.1, 2.4.2.1 i). One of the consequences of higher education transformation concerns a 
move from the traditional collegial culture to a corporate culture (1.1.1, 1.2, 2.2), and this 
has important consequences for leadership and management in the academe. One of those 
consequences is an ‘identity crisis’ for academics who have to decide whether they are 
academic leaders or line managers. The distinction between management and leadership 
is an interesting subject of debate and much has been written about it. In brief, the 
manager pays attention to how things are done and a leader pays attention to what the 
events and decisions mean to participants (2.3.1). However, leaders and managers are not 
two different types of people; leadership cannot replace management; it should be 
complementary to management. In this new era of management within organisations, 
there is a paradigm shift from the rational management approach to a leadership approach 


 
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that  values change, empowerment and relationships and [thus] requires managers  to 
become effective leaders (Daft 2005:15-16).  
 
The context in which universities operate today is being rapidly altered by changes in 
technology, increasing international competition and globalisation of the economy 
(2.3.2). As a result, there is a demand for new skills and fresh ways of working which 
require innovative abilities from the new leaders and managers (2.3.2). Innovative 
communication skills are required as well as managers who are flexible and adaptable 
enough to thrive in constantly changing environments (2.3.2). Many of these changes in 
approach, attitudes, and ways of working (2.3.2) are more likely to be applicable to 
women managers than to male managers. Studies, which have examined women 
managers and effective ways of managing in the changing environment, have found 
common traits. Women leaders are often described as empathetic, supportive, 
relationship-building, power-sharing, information sharing, co-operative, collaborative, 
fair, team-oriented, task oriented, committed, honest, good communicators, consultative 
and conciliatory and so on (2.3.2). These qualities describe ‘female leadership style’. 
Although the ‘male script’ of leadership and by association, ‘leadership style’ is still 
firmly entrenched in organisations, with universities being the main culprits of male 
hegemony (2.3.2), it is now being acknowledged that the female style of leadership may 
indeed be what today’s organisations require. For instance, it has been found that women 
leaders have a propensity for transformational leadership styles. This would probably 
make them more suitable leaders in the new corporate, academic environment in which 
emphasis is on team-work and the pursuit of fresh values and visions (2.3.3).  Women 
managers are said to be persuasive, influential and charismatic and make extensive use of 
interpersonal skills (2.3.2). Moreover leadership in this century demands the type of skills 
commonly associated with women, such as, alternative ways of problem-solving and 
dealing with conflict.  
 
The job of HoD is associated with numerous roles and responsibilities. These have 
probably changed, over time, from concern for the individual welfare of faculty to 
creating successful working synergy among department personnel as well as from being 
an advocate for department desires to linking the work of the department to the broader 


 
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institution and external audience (2.4.2.1 i). As the first line administrator, the HoD 
becomes the key link between the administration of the institution, the department, 
academic staff, support staff and students. She is expected to give the discipline its 
specific institutional shape, texture or colour (2.4.2.1 i) and to provide intellectual 
leadership. At the same time the HoD is expected to facilitate and encourage the work of 
the individual and of the group, to serve the group by embracing their values and goals as 
well as being a leader who inspires and directs by creating a positive climate within the 
department. She is also expected to attract resources and manage conflict especially 
during times of change. The new HoD faces many transitions, such as, shifting from 
specialist to generalist, from focusing on one’s discipline to representing a broader range 
of inquiries within the department, and from being an individual to looking at the whole 
departmental operation (2.4.2.5). 
 
Although statistics show a positive trend toward the representation of women in the 
academe (3.2), the situation is different when it comes to women’s representation in 
higher academic ranks and in senior management (see 1.1, 3.2.1 & Tables 3.4, 3.6). 
Obstacles still exist. However, there are strategies that, women themselves and 
institutions can adopt to overcome and dismantle these obstacles (3.3.2.2). It is apparent 
that much still needs to be done. Therefore a cross-sectional survey research approach 
employing both quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative (interview) data collection 
methods was chosen to conduct an exploratory and descriptive study of the lived 
experiences of thirty two female HoDs in universities in South Africa and the UK (4.4). 
The women were selected by purposeful sampling and data were collected by means of 
structured pre-coded questionnaires which were sent by overland post and semi-
structured focus group interviews conducted using VConf-FGI (4.4). Quantitative and 
narrative data were gathered and subjected to frequency analyses and ‘topic oriented’ 
qualitative analysis involving identification of, and organisation according to, key themes 
(4.4.2.5, 4.4.2.6 & 4.4.3.5, 4.4.3.6). Demographic, employment, department and staffing 
profiles were gathered and discussed (5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.2.3 & 5.3.2).  Key topics in the 
survey and the interviews related  to career profile/prior experience; skills; roles and 
responsibilities; job challenges; perceptions of role; tasks and functions  were presented 
and discussed (5.2 & 5.3) Emerging themes from these topics were synthesised and 


 
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discussed (5.3.3).  Significant findings which emerged from the quantitative and 
qualitative investigations were synthesised, and interpreted in relation to the research 
questions and aims posed at the beginning of the study (6.2). These resulted in 
conclusions (6.3) and recommendations concerning women, policy, and research (6.4) in 
academic institutions. 
 

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