Counting, which comprised multiplication tables up to 100
· 100 and
was written in Slavonic numeration, was published in Moscow in 1682.
The first Russian textbook proper was Arithmetic (Magnitsky, 1703),
written by the remarkable Russian mathematician and pedagogue,
L. F. Magnitsky (1669–1739), in two volumes (over 600 pages). The
section of the book dealing with arithmetic proper includes the Arabic
numeral system, tables of addition and multiplication for positive
integers (demonstrating interchangeability of operations), operations
with whole numbers, currency and measuring systems of various
countries, fractions, proportions, progressions, square and cube roots,
and problems in applied geometry. A great deal of attention is given
to general discussions on mathematics. Magnitsky notes: “Arithmetic,
or numeration, is an honest art, envy-free, readily grasped by all,
and wholly useful … .” The material is presented in question-and-
answer form. Each new mathematical rule is preceded by a simple
example, followed by a general formulation of the rule and several
analyzed problems, mostly of a practical nature (Kolyagin, 2001;
Polyakova, 1997). The book contains numerous illustrations and
borrows much of its terminology and content from its manuscript
predecessors. Here are a few typical problems from Magnitsky’s
textbook:
• A man was selling a horse for 156 rubles. The buyer said that
the price was too high. The seller then proposed: “Buy only
the nails in the horseshoes. And take the horse gratis. There are
six nails in every horseshoe. Pay a quarter-copeck for the first
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
nail, a half-copeck for the second nail, a whole copeck for the
third nail, and so on for the full set.” The buyer agreed. Find
out what price the buyer ended up paying. (Magnitsky, 1703,
p. 185)
• A man is sent from Moscow to Vologda and ordered to travel
40 verst each day. The following day another man is sent along
the same route and ordered to travel 45 verst each day. In how
many days will the second man overtake the first? (Magnitsky,
1703, p. 218)
Magnitsky’s Arithmetic is a unique work. For over half a century, it
was both a textbook and an encyclopedia of mathematical knowledge.
M. V. Lomonosov referred to it as “the gateway to my education.”
The historian of mathematics V. V. Bobynin believed that “in all of
Russian scientific and mathematical literature one may scarcely find a
book of historical significance comparable to Magnitsky’s Arithmetic”
(Kolyagin, 2001, p. 20).
Magnitsky’s textbook was used in the School for the Mathematical
and Navigational Sciences, founded in Moscow in 1701 by a decree
of Peter the Great. Magnitsky served as one of its instructors (from
1701 until his death), alongside specially retained British pedagogues.
Beginning in 1714, the school graduated not only seamen, engineers,
civil servants, and others, but also teachers of elementary “arithmetic”
schools, funded by the government, which had by that time appeared
in several major cities. The school’s curriculum included arithmetic and
geometry, among other subjects.
The reign of Peter I is traditionally recognized as the beginning
of Russian mathematics and teaching methodology (Kolyagin, 2001).
Among textbooks of this period we find A Manual of Arithmetic
to Be Used in the School of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (1735),
by L. Euler
1
(1707–1783). It was later to serve as the basis for
the wonderful textbooks of N. G. Kurganov (1725–1796): Universal
Arithmetic (1757) and Numerary (1771). These texts set out a sys-
tematic course of mathematics using accessible language and offering
1
Leonard Euler worked at the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg from 1727
through 1741, and again from 1766 through 1783. He is buried in St. Petersburg.
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The History and the Present State
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logical explanations and illustrations with challenging problems and
exercises.
M. V. Lomonosov had developed the “Rule of Moscow Gymnasia”
(1775), which devoted a special place to mathematics. The first year
was devoted to the study of arithmetic, followed by applied geometry,
trigonometry, and plane geometry in the second year. Lomonosov
proposed a method of using systematic mandatory exercises (in class
and at home) as well as optional assignments for homework (Kolyagin,
2001).
Under the “Charter for Public Schools of the Russian Empire”
(1786), arithmetic was included among the subjects covered in the
“first stage” (first and second grades) and mathematics among the
subjects of the “second stage” (third and fourth grades). A school-
day system with class periods was introduced at this time: the teacher
presented a lesson to the entire class; the students proceeded to
solve a variety of problems typically pertaining to daily activities
(Kolyagin, 2001). Practical application remained the primary focus of
mathematical education until the end of the 18th century: students
were generally taught skills that had practical value in their daily
lives.
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