modelling, traveller, equalled, handicapped, programmed ).
Words ending in a final -c change to -ck before a suffix; this mainly involves the
suffixes -ed, -er, -ing (mimic–mimicking, panic–panicking, picnic–picnicked,
traffic–trafficked).
Note, however, the single consonant spelling in American English of
worshiper, kidnaper, traveling.
Rule 2: dropping the final -e
508b
When a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a word ending in -e, the e is
usually dropped:
hope + ing = hoping
invite + ation = invitation
debate + ed = debated
note + able = notable
fame + ous = famous
approve + al = approval
love + able = lovable
There are exceptions to this rule. For example, where the e is kept before a vowel:
●
the e in dyeing (from dye) and singeing (from singe) is kept in order to
differentiate them from similar words dying (from die) and singing (from sing)
●
the e in ce and ge before a suffix beginning with a or o is kept to preserve the /s/
and /d/ sounds (replaceable, noticeable, peaceable, knowledgeable,
advantageous, courageous)
854 | Appendix: English spelling
Cambridge Grammar of English
However, the e is not dropped before a suffix beginning with a consonant, such as
-ful, -less, -ly (forceful, blameless, widely).
Exceptions occur when the e is dropped before a consonant (pursue–pursuit,
awe–awful, feeble–feebly, noble–nobly, true–truly, whole–wholly).
Additionally, some words have alternative forms with or without an e
(abridgment/abridgement, acknowledgment/acknowledgement, and judgment/
judgement).
Rule 3: plurals of nouns and -s forms of verbs
508c
There are rules for the plurals of regular nouns and the -s forms of regular
verbs.
General rule: add s (week–weeks, speak–speaks, eye–eyes, bring–brings,
summer–summers, define–defines).
If the ending is pronounced as a separate syllable, es is added:
noun plurals
verb -s forms
church–churches
fetch–fetches
fox–foxes
fizz–fizzes
bush–bushes
rush–rushes
However, if a word already ends in an -e, an s is added (base–bases, lose–loses,
judge–judges, face–faces).
If the word ends in a consonant plus -y, y changes to i and the suffix es is
added:
noun plurals
verb -s forms
copy–copies
marry–marries
fly–flies
try–tries
Some words ending in -o, require es:
noun plurals
noun plurals and verb -s forms
buffalo–buffaloes
echo–echoes
cargo–cargoes
embargo–embargoes
hero–heroes
go–goes [ go here = attempt]
potato–potatoes
torpedo–torpedoes
tomato–tomatoes
hoe–hoes
Some of the words in this group have a less common alternative form in -s
(video–videos, radio–radios, kilo–kilos, zoo–zoos).
For some nouns ending in -f or -fe, the plural is formed by changing the f or fe
to ves (thief–thieves, loaf–loaves, wife–wives, half–halves).
Û
539 Glossary for any unfamiliar terms
Appendix: English spelling | 855
Rule 4: changing y to i
508d
When a suffix is added to a word ending in a consonant plus -y, the y normally
changes to i:
easy + ly = easily
hurry + s = hurries
happy + ly = happily
mystery + ous = mysterious
amplify + er = amplifier
fury + ous = furious
beauty + ful = beautiful
busy + ness = business
apply + ed = applied
empty + ness = emptiness
spy + s = spies
amplify + cation = amplification
There are, however, exceptions where the y is kept after a consonant:
●
a few words of one syllable keep the y before a suffix (dryness, shyness, slyness)
●
the y is kept before -ing (studying, applying)
●
the y is kept before -’s (the fly’s wing, May’s rain)
The y is kept in most words that end in a vowel + -y:
buy + er = buyer
grey + ish = greyish
destroy + s = destroys
play + ful = playful
enjoy + ment = enjoyment
try + ing = trying
Exceptions occur where the y after a vowel is changed to i (gay–gaily, pay–paid).
Rule 5: spelling of verb forms: -ed forms
508e
The past tense and -ed participle are the same in regular verbs. The following are
the spelling rules for regular verbs:
General rule: add ed (play–played, load–loaded, trail–trailed, echo–echoed).
If the word ends in -e, a d is added (agree–agreed, note–noted, love–loved,
tie–tied).
If the word ends in a consonant plus -y, the y is changed to i before -ed
(cry–cried, dry–dried, envy–envied, reply–replied).
There are three exceptions, where the y is changed to i after a vowel and just d
is added (lay–laid, pay–paid, say–said).
The rules for doubling a single consonant before -ed are as described above at
508a. For example ( beg–begged, enter–entered, float–floated, prefer–preferred).
Rule 6: spelling of verb forms: -ing forms
508f
General rule: add ing (cash–cashing, go–going, hurry–hurrying, play–playing).
If the word ends in -e, e is dropped before - ing ( lose–losing, judge–judging,
save–saving, write–writing).
856 | Appendix: English spelling
Cambridge Grammar of English
But if the word ends in -ee, - oe or - ye, the e is kept:
see–seeing
hoe–hoeing
agree–agreeing
dye–dyeing (compare: die/dying)
If the word ends in -ie, the i is changed to y and the e is dropped before the -ing
(die–dying, lie–lying, tie–tying).
See Rule 1 (508a above) for doubling a single consonant before -ing.
Rule 7: the suffix -ally
508g
The suffix - ally is added to adjectives ending in -ic to form adverbs
(economic–economically, automatic–automatically, realistic–realistically,
tragic–tragically). Exception: publicly.
SPELLING AND SHORT AND LONG VOWELS
509
Doubling
509a
The vowels a, e, i, o, u have long and short pronunciations. Thus there is a long
vowel a in the word mast and a short vowel a in the word mat.
When a long vowel is followed by a single consonant plus a vowel, the
consonant is
not doubled when a suffix is added (scene–scenic,
enthuse–enthusiasm, skate–skating, wide–widen, hope–hopeful).
Doubling of consonants, where it occurs, enables words with similar forms to
be differentiated (diner, dinner; later, latter).
Addition of final e to indicate long vowel
509b
A final silent e is used to indicate that the preceding stressed written vowel is long:
long vowel
short vowel
hate, fate
hat, fat
theme, impede
them, moped
dine, bite
din, bit
There are some common exceptions, where the preceding vowel does not have the
regular pronunciation (have; there, where; were; come, done, love, none, one,
some; gone; live (as a verb), give).
The general rule applies also in the sequence vowel + consonant + -le. Hence,
in gable the vowel a is long whereas in gabble it is short. Further examples of the
long vowel in this position are: able, fable, ladle, bible, circle, cycle, idle, trifle,
noble. Exception: label.
Û
539 Glossary for any unfamiliar terms
Appendix: English spelling | 857
SPELLING CHECKS
510
One word or two?
510a
Some sound pairs are spelt either as one or as two words, depending on the meaning
intended:
one word
two words
one word
two words
already
all ready
however
how ever
altogether
all together
into
in to
always
all ways
maybe
may be
anybody
any body
nobody
no body
anyway
any way
someone
some one
awhile
a while
somebody
some body
everyone
every one
whatever
what ever
everybody
every body
whoever
who ever
i before e except after c
510b
If in doubt about ie or ei when the sound of the vowel is as in brief, spell it ie; but after c,
spell it ei:
ie
ei after c
brief
thief
ceiling
belief
achieve
conceive
believe
field
conceit
diesel
niece
deceive
relief
priest
receipt
relieve
siege
perceive
Exceptions for spelling ie:
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