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Appendix: English spelling
This appendix introduces some of the most basic spelling rules in British English,
with a panel showing some differences between British and American spelling. It
makes reference to the structure of words discussed in
258–268 Word structure
and word formation but can also be read independently.
SPELLING AND PREFIXES
507
When there is a prefix, letters are not normally added or taken away:
un + sure = unsure
un + necessary = unnecessary
dis + obey = disobey
dis + similar = dissimilar
mis + read = misread
mis + rule = misrule
over + hear = overhear
under + spend = underspend
in + humane = inhumane
in + sane = insane
in + secure = insecure
il-, im-, ir-
When the first letter of a word is l, m, p, or r, the prefix in- is regularly changed to
il-, im- or ir-. For example: in becomes il- before l; in becomes im- before m or p;
in becomes ir- before r:
-il
-im
-ir
illegible
immoral
irreparable
illegal
immeasurable
irreplaceable
illiberal
impartial
irrepressible
illiterate
impossible
irresolute
illogical
imprudent
irresponsible
SPELLING AND SUFFIXES
508
There are two kinds of suffix.
A suffix can be attached to the end of a base form to create a new word. This
process typically changes the word class:
noun suffixes: action, trainee, freedom, arrival
adjective suffixes: informal, homeless, grateful
verb suffixes: simplify, darken, internationalise
adverb suffixes: quickly, homeward(s), clockwise
However, inflectional suffixes express grammatical meanings and do not change
the class of the word. For example, -ed is added to paint to produce the past tense
painted. The spelling rules for suffixes below apply also to inflections.
Û
also
262
Suffixes in
Word structure and word formation
Rule 1: consonant is doubled before a suffix
508a
Consonants doubled
The final consonant of a word is often doubled when a suffix beginning with a
vowel is added. Examples of such suffixes are: -ed, -er, -est, -ing.
The rule applies in the case of the following single consonants: b, d, g, l, m, n,
p, r, t:
rub + ed = rubbed
red + ish = reddish
big + er = bigger
travel+ er = traveller
slim + ing = slimming
sin + er = sinner
drop + ed = dropped
war + ing = warring
fit + ing = fitting
If the suffix is added to a word with more than one syllable, consonant doubling
follows a stressed syllable:
refer + ed = referred
omit + ing = omitting
submit + ing = submitting
occur + ence = occurrence
upset + ing = upsetting
Û
539 Glossary for any unfamiliar terms
Appendix: English spelling | 853
Compare, however, the words
visit and
offer, where the stress is on the first
syllable:
visit = visiting
offer = offering
(visitting)
(offerring)
Note too that in each case the vowel before the last consonant is a short vowel.
Consonants not doubled
The final consonant is not doubled before a suffix:
●
if the word ends in two written consonants (export–exported, find–finding,
insert–inserting, insist–insisted, lift–lifted, persist–persistence)
●
if there are two written vowels (meeting, rained, beaten, trainer, repeated)
●
if the stress is not on the last syllable of the word to which the suffix is added
(enter–entering, develop–developing (developping), open–opener)
Irregular forms and exceptions
Some monosyllabic words ending in -s are irregular and the s may be doubled or
not (busses/buses, gasses/gases). In a few polysyllabic words ending in -s, the s
may also be doubled, even though the final syllable before the suffix is unstressed
(either biased or biassed, either focusing or focussing). There is a preference for
the forms with a single s, and those with double s are relatively rare.
Some words with more than two syllables, several of them words ending in -l,
have a double consonant even though the last syllable is not stressed (marvellous,
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