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CONCEPT FORMATION
, process by which a person learns to sort specific experiences into general rules or classes. With regard to action, a person picks up a particular stone or drives a specific car. With regard to thought, however, a person appears to deal with classes. For instance, one knows that stones (in general) sink and automobiles (as a class) are powered by engines. In other words, these things are considered in a general sense beyond any particular stone or automobile. Awareness of such classes can help guide behaviour in new situations. Thus two people in a bakery may never have met before, but, if one can be classified as customer and the other as clerk, they tend to behave appropriately. Similarly, many people are able to drive almost any automobile by knowing how to drive a specific automobile.
The term concept formation describes how a person learns to form classes, whereas the term conceptual thinking refers to an individual’s subjective manipulation of those abstract classes. A concept is a rule that may be applied to decide if a particular object falls into a certain class. The concept “citizen of the United States” refers to such a decision rule, meaning any person who was born in U.S. territory or who is a child of a U.S. citizen or who has been legally naturalized. The rule suggests questions to ask in checking the citizenship of any particular individual. As most concepts do, it rests on other concepts; “U.S. citizen” is defined in terms of the concepts “child” and “territory.” Many scientific or mathematical concepts cannot be understood until the terms by which they are defined have been grasped. In this way concept formation builds on itself.
Conceptual classification may be contrasted with another type of classification behaviour called discrimination learning. In discrimination learning, objects are classified on the basis of directly perceived properties such as physical size or shape. The emphasis on concrete physical features in discrimination learning can be contrasted with the more abstract nature of concept formation. When a stimulus is perceived to match several different past experiences, however, the response may be a compromise, because an object need not bear an all-or-none relation to a set of others in discrimination learning; for example, there is no absolute distinction between tall and short people.
While human beings are capable of abstract thought, many of the classifications people make seem to be concrete discriminations. For example, people may use the same term in a discriminative or conceptual way. A child might use the term policeman in discriminating a man who wears a distinctive uniform, while a lawyer may use the term to represent a civil servant charged with enforcing criminal codes. In practice, people seem to think in ways that combine abstractness and concreteness. They also may blend class membership with assignment along a scale—e.g., such concepts as leadership, an abstract quality that people are said to exhibit in varying degrees. The same would apply to vivacity, avarice, and other personality traits.
People seem to develop more-complex sets of classes than do other animals, but this does not necessarily mean that human modes of learning are unique. It may be that all animals have the same basic biochemical machinery for learning but human animals exhibit it in greater variety. Yet, it seems no more appropriate to account for human concept formation in terms of discrimination learning alone than it does to reduce the functions of a piston engine to chemical reactions.
Experimental studies
Because careful observation of informal, everyday behaviour is difficult, most evidence about human concept formation comes from laboratory subjects. For example, each subject is asked to learn a rule for classifying geometric figures (see table).
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