488
PA R T V
Central Banking and the Conduct of Monetary Policy
the newly appointed Bank of Canada governor, John Crow, announced that the Bank
would subsequently pursue an objective of price stability (or zero inflation).
6
Initially,
the policy of zero inflation took the form of a return to the high interest rates of the
early 1980s. For example, during 1987 through 1989, interest rates increased and the
Canadian dollar appreciated by more than would have normally been expected
under previous regimes. The idea was that higher interest rates and a stronger dollar
would lower aggregate demand and eventually bring inflation down.
In this most recent attempt at lowering inflation, the Bank of Canada, however,
followed a different strategy, by announcing explicit targets for its ultimate goal the
inflation rate rather than for an intermediate variable such as money growth. In par-
ticular, in February 1991 the Bank s governor and the minister of finance jointly
announced a series of declining inflation targets, with a band of plus and minus one
percentage point around them. The targets were 3% by the end of 1992, falling to 2%
by the end of 1995, to remain within a range of 1% to 3% thereafter. The 1% to 3%
target range for inflation was renewed in December 1995, in early 1998, May 2001,
and again in November 2006, to apply until the end of 2011.
7
The midpoint of the
current inflation target range, 2%, is regarded as the most desirable outcome.
In setting its inflation targets, the Bank uses the rate of change in the CPI because
of its headline quality it is the most commonly used and understood price mea-
sure in Canada. Moreover, the CPI comes out monthly and without revisions, whereas
other price indexes, such as the GDP deflator, are frequently revised. However,
because headline CPI (all items) includes volatile components such as food, energy,
and the effect of indirect taxes, the Bank, in order to avoid responses to short-run
fluctuations, prefers to use and report inflation in core CPI, which excludes volatile
components. A core inflation rate is useful in assessing whether trend inflation is on
track for the medium term. Also, defining the inflation targets in terms of ranges pro-
vides the Bank sufficient flexibility to deal with supply shocks beyond those already
taken care of by the exclusion of volatile components from core inflation.
The move to targeting directly a goal of policy rather than an intermediate variable
represented a significant shift in Bank of Canada policy procedures. An implication of
this change was that the Bank had to broaden its information gathering to include vari-
ables containing significant information about future inflation. It has since used the
overnight interest rate as the operating target and indicated that a range of monetary
aggregates is useful in guiding policy along with an index of monetary conditions
based on interest rates and exchange rates. The main purpose of this index is to cap-
ture the two key monetary policy transmission mechanisms in an open economy the
one operating through interest rates and the one operating through exchange rates.
What are the results of Canada s inflation-targeting monetary policy? Figure 18-1
(panel B) on page 468 plots the Canadian inflation rate for each year since 1980 and
shows the Bank s target range since 1996. Clearly, inflation has fallen dramatically
since the adoption of inflation targets, from above the 5% level in 1991 to a 1% rate
in 1998, being most of the time in the lower half of the target range. However, this
decline was not without cost: unemployment soared to above the 10% level from 1991
until 1994 but has since fallen. What is difficult to say is whether explicit inflation tar-
gets are the only way to achieve good macroeconomic outcomes. As the Bank s for-
mer governor, Gordon Thiessen, put it, It is too early to draw very strong conclusions
6
Zero inflation should be interpreted as a small positive rate of measured inflation.
7
The 1995 and 1998 inflation-control agreements between the Bank of Canada and the government
had a three-year horizon. However, the 2006 agreement, like the 2001 agreement, has a five-year
horizon, reflecting the wide acceptance of the targets after over fifteen years of operation.
about the impact of inflation targets on actual economic performance in Canada. We
really do require a longer period of time for targets to demonstrate their ability to deal
successfully with the peak of an economic upturn without the trend of inflation mov-
ing persistently outside the target range.
8
The historical record of the Bank of Canada s conduct of monetary policy reveals
that during the 1960s and 1970s, the Bank operated in an environment character-
ized by instrument and goal opaqueness. The use of multiple instruments and
goals tended to shield the Bank from scrutiny and accountability; the public was
not able to comprehend the Bank s actions, allowing the accountability of the
Bank of Canada to deteriorate.
Over the past decade, however, as John Chant, a former Special Adviser at the
Bank of Canada, recently put it . . . the Bank of Canada has transformed its con-
duct of monetary policy by focusing on an explicit inflation-control target, estab-
lishing a Governing Council for decision-making, announcing a target overnight
interest rate, and adopting fixed action dates for making policy changes.
9
These
changes (and in particular the adoption of inflation targets) have moved the Bank
away from opaqueness, towards openness and accountability.
The recognition that monetary policy needs to be more forward looking has
prompted the Bank of Canada to be more pre-emptive. The Bank has not
only engaged in pre-emptive strikes against a rise in inflation, but it has acted pre-
emptively against negative shocks to aggregate demand and especially to those
associated with financial disruptions.
With the onset of the financial crisis in August 2007, the Bank of Canada began
to ease policy even in the face of a strong economy with growth close to 3% in
the third quarter of 2007, unemployment below 6%, and inflation rising because
of the increase in energy prices. The potential for the financial disruption to
weaken the economy and to produce an adverse feedback loop
in which credit
markets would worsen and weaken economic activity, which in turn would fur-
ther weaken credit markets
encouraged the Bank of Canada to take pre-emptive
action, cutting the overnight interest rate by 25 basis points in December of 2007
to 4.25%. Subsequent easing of monetary policy lowered the overnight funds rate
to 0.25% by April of 2009. At the same time, the Bank of Canada implemented
large liquidity injections into the credit markets to try to get them working again
(as discussed in the previous chapter).
These pre-emptive attacks against negative shocks to aggregate demand were
particularly successful in the past in keeping economic fluctuations very mild. The
magnitude of the financial disruption during the recent financial crisis, however,
was so great that the pre-emptive actions by the Bank of Canada were not enough
to contain the crisis, and the economy suffered accordingly.
C H A P T E R 1 8
The Conduct of Monetary Policy: Strategy and Tactics
489
8
Gordon G. Thiessen, The Canadian Experience with Targets for Inflation Control,
Canadian Public
Policy
24 (1998), p. 425. For a more detailed discussion of Canada s experience with inflation targets,
see also Charles Freedman, Inflation Targeting and the Economy: Lessons from Canada s First
Decade,
Contemporary Economic Policy
19 (2001), pp. 2 19, and Ben Bernanke, Thomas Laubach,
Frederic Mishkin, and Adam Posen,
Inflation Targeting: Lessons from the International Experience
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
9
John Chant, The Bank of Canada: Moving Towards Transparency,
Bank of Canada Review
(Spring
2003): 5 13.
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