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Mug
- 1) a large cup, typically cylindrical with a handle and used without
a saucer ; 2) informal: a person's face.
Here we see a clear difference in the shades of meaning – in most cases
they are supported by difference in style, and as such, they belong to
ideographic-stylistic synonyms
The synonymic group of adjectives describing mental disorder includes
words mad – maniacal – crazy – crazed – insane – demented – deranged –
unhinged, etc. The words differ not only by shades of meaning and degrees of
intensity, but also by their stylistic coloring : some are neutral in denotational
meaning –
insane
, others bookish –
demented, maniacal
, some – colloquial –
crazy,
others – disapproving –
unhinged
- If you describe someone's behaviour
or performance as unhinged, you are critical of it because it seems wild and
uncontrollable.
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Thus, after a short review of the types, we can conclude, that synonyms
are sets of words which contain usually several members differing from each
other in some shades of meaning, degree or intensity, stylistic reference and
emotional colouring. Each such group has a word expressing the idea in a more
general and neutral form Such words are termed synonymic dominants, as the
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ABBYY Lingvo x5
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most generalized term of its kind, usually stylistically neutral and sharing some
of the distinctive features with all members of the synonymic group.
However we should remember that it is universally known that no two
words are absolutely identical in their meanings connotatio9ns, ways of usage,
stylistic reference and/or frequency of occurrence. For example, we can not be
sure that even the words “motherland” and “ fatherland” are absolutely identical
in their meanings, as they differ in their usage. Thus, we can not speak of a total
synonymy.
In dictionaries we find a paradigmatic description of synonyms where the
main accent is laid on the points of difference between them. Special
supplementary notes in lexicography, such as ‘obsolete’, ‘derogatory’, ‘poetic’,
‘informal’, ‘slang’, etc., help us to restrict the wrong usage of synonyms and to
escape stylistic mistakes in choosing the proper word for the current situation.
Synonyms can appear in paradigmatic and syntagmatic sets. Dictionaries
of synonyms include words on the basis of relatedness of their meanings. Here
we deal with identity and differentiation, continuity and variability as the main
parameters. Usually in analyzing synonymy we pay attention to semantic
distinctions between lexical units as these distinctions in meaning and usage are
very important in choosing the right word in a particular context or speech
situation. With meaning defined as encyclopaedic, or simply ‘world knowledge’,
criteria for meaning discrimination and the identification of synonymy are based
on the notion of synonymy against the background of the theoretical and
methodological developments in contemporary (lexical) semantics.
The starting point is the observation that the problem of synonymy and
the problem of polysemy are essentially the same: if we have valid criteria for
establishing whether we are dealing with one or more separate readings of a
single item or construction, then the same criteria can be used for establishing
whether two items or constructions illustrate one or more meanings. It follows,
in general, that the difficulties with the criteria for establishing difference of
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meaning that is analyzed by Geeraerts D. hold for synonymy as well as for
polysemy.
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For each of these approaches, we will try to indicate advantages and the
drawbacks, an exercise that will lead to the conclusion that there is as yet no
single and generally applicable method for establishing synonymy. This
conclusion will then be deepened by a critical look at the concept of synonymy
itself: if we re-think synonymy, could it be that the absence of a methodological
consensus reflects not just the weakness of linguistic methods, but a flaw in our
conception of meaning.
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Most standardized tests – including high school entrance exams, the SAT,
civil service exams, and the GRE - use synonym questions to test verbal skills.
These questions ask test takers to identify the word that is most similar or
dissimilar to another word, effectively testing their knowledge of two words.
Furthermore, studying synonyms trains the mind by developing precise
and accurate habits of thought, and it provides a wealth of knowledge. There are
about 8000 synonymic groups in English. In a synonymic group we can see
“synonymic dominant”, the most general, neutral word, usually belonging to the
basic stock of words.
As has been said above, synonyms may be classified into the following
groups:
1. Absolute (total) synonyms. They are extremely rare in English, and
probably in any other languages. However, it is possible to find few of them.
Some examples include: noun/substantive; functional affix, flexion and
inflexion, which may be said to be identical in meaning.
2. Semantic synonyms. They are those which differ in terms of their
denotation. For example:
glance
and
look
. We all know that “look” is the most
neutral member of the group and simply means “turn one’s eyes in a particular
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Geeraerts D. Generalised onomasiological salience. Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 1993.- p. 207
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http://www.ec-ftu.org/2009/05/advanced-grammar/synonymic-groups-in-english.html
70
direction in order to see”; on the other hand, apart from these semes, “glance”
suggests a “quick and stolen look.”
3. Stylistic synonyms. They are those which differ in terms of their
connotation. For example: Policeman – bobby – cop; before – ere; father – dad;
fellow – chap – lad. We can see that their denotation is identical. No matter what
their connotation is, “father” is “dad” in terms of notion.
4. Semantic – stylistic synonyms make up the majority of all synonyms in
English – words differing both in denotational and connotational meaning, i.e in
shades of meaning connotation: To reduce – to axe – to cut back;To dismiss – to
sack – to fire – to lay off.
5. Phraseological synonyms, i.e. words different in their collocations
(combinability, i.e. ability to be combined with different words):
Do
–
make
(to
do
exercises
but
to
make
money);
Language
–
tongue
(native
language,
buе
to
know
languages);
To lift – to raise (
to raise or lift a finger
but
to raise prices, wages, question
).
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6. Territorial synonyms. They are those employed in different regions like
British, Canada, Australia or the United States. Consider “sidewalk” and
“pavement”. We know that the former is common in the States, whereas the
latter is used on the other side of the Atlantic.
7. Euphemisms, which
literally
means
“speak
well”.
In
using
euphemisms, a less unpleasant or offensive effect is achieved. Consider
“redundant” and “be out of a job/unemployed”, thus, it may sound more
“politically correct”.
However in the language as a dynamic organism chances are that
researchers might discover yet other types of synonyms, which means the above
list is far from being complete.
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Кунин А.В. Курс фразеологии современного английского языка. М., Высшая школа, 1996.- р. 299
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