Microsoft Word Saidova Nilufar

ETYMOLOGICAL DOUBLETS, TRANSLATION LOANS AND INTERNATIONAL WORDS

TRANSLATION LOANS AND SEMANTIC LOANS
Alongside loan words proper there are translation loans (or calques) and semantic loans.
Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the English language, but according to patterns, taken from other languages, by way of literal morpheme-for-morpheme translation. One of the earliest calques in the vocabulary of the English language is 'Gospel' (OE god-spell-'евангелие' literally 'благая весть') which is an exact reproduction of the etymological structure of the Greek euggelion, ' благая весть', borrowed into English through Latin. Other examples are: 'mother tongue* from Latin 'lingua materna' (родно язык), 'it goes without saying' from French 'cela va sans dire' (само собо разумеется).
The number of translation loans from German is rather large: 'chain-smoker' from 'Kettenrauchen' (заядлы курильщик);
'world famous' from 'weltberuhmt' (всемирно известны);
'God's acre' from 'Gottesacker' (кладбище literally божье поле); 'masterpiece' from 'Meisterstuk'(шедевр);
'Swan song' from 'Schwanengesang' (лебединая песня); 'superman' from 'Ubermensoh' (сверхчеловек);
'wonder child' from 'Wunderkind'.
There are a few calques from the languages of American Indians: 'pale-face' (бледнолицы); 'pipe of peace' (трубка мира); 'Warpath' (тропа воны); 'war-paint' (раскраска тела перед походом).
They are mostly used figuratively.
Calques from Russian are rather numerous. They are names of things and notions reflecting Soviet reality:
'local Soviet' (местны совет);
'self-criticism' (самокритика); 'Labour-day' (трудодень); 'individual peasant' (единоличник);
'voluntary Sunday time' (воскресник).
The last two are considered by N.N. Amosova to be oases of explana-tory translation.
Semantic borrowing is the development of a new meaning by a word due to the influence of a related word in another language, e.g. the English word 'pioneer` meant
`первооткрыватель` /now, under the influence of the Russian word 'пионер' it has come to mean 'член детско коммунистическо организации'.
Semantic loans are particularly frequent in related languages. For example, the Old English 'dwellan' (блуждать, медлить) developed into 'dwell` in Modern English and acquired the meaning 'жить' under the influence of the Old Norse 'dwelja' ('жить'). The words 'bread' ('кусок хлеба' in OE), 'dream' ('радость' in OE), 'plough' ('мера земли' in OE) received their present meanings from Old Norse.

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