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3.2.6. Argumentation as a teaching method 
During the mid-1990s, argumentation appeared as an area of research in science education. 
Since then, researchers working on such themes as science education for citizenship and 
language in the science classroom have addressed argumentation in their work. (Erduran & 
Jiménez-Aleixandre, 2007)
In the context of the design solution presented in this thesis, arguments are defined to include 
claims, data and justifications, which could be supported by evidence and modal qualifiers 
and be challenged with rebuttals (Osborne, Erduran & Simon, 2004). Argumentation has been 
suggested to emerge from personal, ethical, societal and scientific dimensions (Kolstø, 2001). 
Socio-scientific reasoning can include aspects of recognising the complexity of the issue, 
examining multiple perspectives, accepting ongoing inquiry and exhibiting scepticism about 
potentially biased information (Sadler et al., 2007).
Teachers need support in teaching and evaluating argumentation. Teachers are lacking the 
pedagogical skills to organise argumentative discourse within the classroom (Driver et al., 
2000). The multi-dimensionality of socio-scientific issues and argumentation causes 
struggling, and teachers are also lacking in both the theoretical knowledge and the suitable 
practical approaches to ESD (Burmeister et al., 2013).
Students on their behalf need more opportunities for practicing argumentation to develop their 
skills (Driver et al., 2000). Students feel that their own lack of knowledge contributes to their 
inability to participate in SSI discussions (Tytler et al., 2001; Sadler and Zeidler, 2004; Albe, 
2008).
The need for systematic, school-tested, collaboratively-developed material in the teaching of 
argumentation has been addressed in previous studies (e.g., Albe, 2008; Pernaa, Aksela & 
Västinsalo, 2010; Simon, 2008). There is a need for new socio-scientific lesson plans that deal 
with hard-to-define real-world questions. When compared to more traditional, deductive 
chemistry education approaches, these complex problems train the students to better meet the 
real world and form arguments regarding socio-scientific issues (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 
2007; Rockström et al., 2009; Jho et al., 2013). The students need ample opportunities to 
practice justifying claims related to SSI. 
According to the theoretical framework of this thesis, the most fruitful interventions within 
ESD in chemistry are the socio-scientific ones. Tasks related to SSI encourage personal 
connections between students and the issues discussed, explicitly address the value of 
justifying claims and expose the importance of paying attention to opposing opinions (Garcia-
Mila et al., 2013; Sadler, 2004; Sadler & Donnelly, 2006). A student-centred, inquiry-based 
product LCA project addresses the needs discussed above. It is collaboratively designed by 
chemistry teachers themselves (see 
Article I
). The empirical phase of this study enabled the 
students to practice their competencies and argumentation skills with issues relating to the 
life-cycles of consumer products.

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