Microsoft Word 2007 ichrie conference Proceedings Final-Final 06-06-07. doc

LITERATURE REVIEW 
Branding related concepts have been discussed in several contexts, such as differentiation of the goods and 
services from others (Aaker, 1991), the customer-based brand equity pyramid (Keller, 2002), dimensions of brand 
development, and brand essence, a single thought that identifies the soul of a brand (Aaker and Joachimsthaler, 
2000). The commonality among the various definitions is that a brand extends beyond traditional tangible product 
features. It includes the intangible qualities assigned by a consumer that add value to the product. Tangible assets 
include the product itself, attributes, logos, taglines, graphics, symbols, packaging designs, or a combination of 
several of these items. Intangible assets of a brand include the attitudes and emotions invoked by the consumer when 
presented with the product or other elements of the brand. This parallels the accepted definition by Aaker (1991), as 
cited in Blain, Levy & Ritchie (2005), in which branding describes the identification of goods and services along 
with the differentiation of the goods and services from others. The overall importance of branding is that the brand is 
sustainable as long as its value is maintained through consistent marketing (Anholt, 2004).
Keller (2002) describes a brand as a perceptual entity based in reality. Keller’s description acknowledges 
that a brand’s true value is in the mind of the consumer through the emotional attachments associated with a specific 
product or place. Once established, the value of a brand is the perception by the consumer, thus difficult to destroy 
(Anholt, 2004; Kotler & Gertner, 2002). Morgan, Pritchard and Pride (2004) echo this sentiment, underscoring the 
power of branding when the consumer reaches an emotional attachment with a product or place. Keller (2002) 
expands on the dimensions of brand loyalty (Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2000), in the customer-based brand equity 
diagram, adding brand elements, marketing components, and other associations. Keller, in fact, describes marketing 
as a coordinated effort of branding, allowing marketing campaigns to incorporate elements that emphasize the brand.
Destinations offer many tourism products to the consumer. Destinations are often thought to be well-
defined geographical locations such as a city, state, or country (Buhalis, 2000). Buhalis (2000) expands this 
definition to include a concept, a perceived idea of what a destination could be in the eyes of the consumer based on 
travel plans or past experiences not bound by geographical locations. Accordingly, a destination is a plethora of 
interrelated elements and experiences (Buhalis, 2000; Murphy, Pritchard, & Smith, 2000). Destination branding is 
the selection and implementation of consistent elements to identify and differentiate a place or product through 
positive image building (Morgan & Pritchard, 2004; Cai, 2002). Cai (2002) reiterates the significance of elements, 
marketing efforts, and secondary associations with the inclusion of these components in his model of destination 
branding. Cai defines a destination brand as comprised of multiple attributes: tangible characteristics of a destination 
and affectives: how a tourist feels about that particular destination. 
The destination branding model by Cai (2002) integrates organic and induced image concepts with 
attributes, attitudes, and affective components of a destination. One of the tenets of the Cai model of destination 
branding is the theory of spreading activation by Anderson (1983). The theory by Anderson employs a method 
called Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) by which higher levels of cognitive control are related. This theory states 
that the more nodes of recall a person has with a concept, the stronger the chance of recollection when presented 

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