Microsoft Word 2007 ichrie conference Proceedings Final-Final 06-06-07. doc

FACTORS THAT AFFECT WOMEN’S CAREER ADVANCEMENT 
Researchers have identified a number of factors that function as barriers to women’s career advancement. 
These include the glass ceiling, i.e., artificial barriers that prevent qualified individuals from advancing within their 
organizations (Catalyst, 2006, Galinsky, et al., 2003; Knutson & Schmidgall, 1999; Myerson & Fletcher, 2000); 
gender discrimination, e.g., pay disparities and sexual harassment (Diaz & Umbreit, 1995; Riger & Gallagin, 1980; 
Sparrow & Iverson, 1999; Woods & Kavanaugh, 1994); a male-dominated organizational culture (Brownell, 1994; 
Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Eagly & Wood, 1991; Vianen & Fischer, 2002); and work and family conflict (Brownell, 
1998; Mallon & Cassell, 1999).
Studies also have identified factors that serve as facilitators of women’s career advancement. These include 
hard work (Gregg & Johnson, cited in Brownell, 1994); networking and mentoring (Fagenson & Jackson, 1993; Ng 
& Pine, 2003); relocating or changing companies (Ng & Pine); a charismatic personality (Knutson & Schmidgall, 
1999); job performance, post-employment education, communication skills, and perseverance (Catalyst, 2006).
Researchers have reported gender differences on perceptions of factors that affect women’s career 
advancement. In a survey of general managers, Brownell (1994) found that males viewed mentoring as significantly 
more important to women’s careers than did females. Of eight obstacles to women’s career advancement, gender 
differences were found on the perceived importance of old boy networks, family and work conflict, pay and 
promotions, job characteristics, lack of mentors, lack of credibility, and sexual harassment. Fifty-four percent of the 
male managers viewed pay and promotions as no obstacle or a minor one, only 11% of the female managers agreed. 
Half of males perceived old boy networks as only minor obstacles, while most females viewed it as major obstacle.
Ng and Pine (2003) found that female managers perceived a stronger positive relationship between communication 
skills and career development than did males. Three obstacles were found to be significantly different: inadequate 
job knowledge, difficulty in establishing credibility, and lack of equity in training, with males viewing each as 
bigger obstacles than females. Ng (1995) conducted a survey of part-time MBA students in Hong Kong, and found 
that men’s attitudes toward women as managers were less favorable than women’s attitudes. She concluded that 
women managers will continue to face discrimination in the workplace unless attitudes change in a positive way.
Brownell (1994) and Ng and Pine (2003) recommended that both educators and industry leaders should 
take responsibility for preparing women for success. However, researchers have not focused on the perceptions of 
hospitality students and educators regarding gender issues. The current study adopted an approach similar to that 
used by Brownell (1994) and Ng and Pine (2003). The purposes of the study were to: (a) examine students’, 
educators’, and industry recruiters’ perceptions of significant factors that constrain or facilitate women’s career 
advancement; (b) identify significant gender and group differences in the perceptions of male and female students, 
educators and industry recruiters; (c) describe ways hospitality educators and recruiters could better prepare women; 
and (d) describe how education programs could help reduce barriers to women’s career advancement.