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CHAPTER 2 – HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 
44 
atrocities, that a continuation or resumption of a common Ottoman sovereignty over 
the different nationalities in its territory was no longer possible, is clearly enough 
reflected in the first part of the twelfth of Wilson’s fourteen points, first pronounced 
in January 1918
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:
The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a 
secure sovereignty but the other nationalities which are now under 
Turkish control should be assured an undoubted security of life and an 
absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development. 
The force of this formulation emerges even more emphatically from a comparison 
with the much more anodyne tenth point which concerns another polyethnic empire, 
Austria-Hungary:
The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish 
to see safe-guarded and assured should be accorded the freest 
opportunity for autonomous development.
Here there is plainly no threat to life, no molestation of the opportunity of 
autonomous development, no “control” by a dominant of other nationalities and no 
implied contrast between a “present” order and a future different one. Could there 
have been presented more clearly to the Christian minorities the prospect that an 
Allied victory would bring what they saw as liberation? And could there have been 
any stronger reinforcement for the Turks in addition to the recent revelation by the 
52
The complete text of the Fourteen Points may be consulted at 
https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=62#
 (accessed 4 February 2018) 

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CHAPTER 2 – HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 
45 
Bolsheviks of allied territorial ambitions of the vital need to define and defend a 
“Turkish portion”? 
The Bolshevik Revolution in November 1917, by taking Russia out of the war, gave 
at least the appearance of relief to an exhausted Turkey, whose leaders were thereby 
inspired to pursue illusory gains in Transcaucasia.
53
This diversion of resources from 
the principal fronts on which Turkey faced or was to face its remaining opponents 
hastened the eventual collapse. In mid-September 1918 the British broke through in 
Palestine capturing Damascus within a fortnight and throwing the Ottoman armies 
facing them into headlong retreat.
54
The fatal blow, however, came from the hitherto 
largely quiet Salonica front where Bulgaria faced British, French and Greek troops. 
A successful, if brief, offensive in May 1918 had already provoked Bulgarian peace-
feelers but these proved fruitless. A general break out on 14 September 1918 led to a 
Bulgarian capitulation on 29 September and an ensuing advance of Allied forces in 
the direction of Constantinople. Turkey now found itself cut off from its allies and its 
capital threatened by a large enemy army which it did not have available forces to 
repel
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. 
As happened in Germany at about the same time, the government which had brought 
the country to such a pass resigned and left others to pick up the pieces. A new 
cabinet was formed on 9 October and peace-feelers were put out. These elicited a 
positive response on 22 October and negotiations for an armistice on a British 
53
Mango, 175; McMeekin, 381-387; Zürcher 2004, 120-121 
54
Gawrych, 60-61; McMeekin, 399-401; Mango, 179-182 
55
McMeekin, 402-404; Mango, 185; Zürcher 2004, 120-121 

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