Metallic money

Characteristics of monetary changes
These principles were the building blocks for ideas about the transmission of monetary changes that developed beginning in the 18th century. Some of the main propositions relating to the transmission of monetary changes are:

1. 
   The growth rate of the quantity of money is consistently, though not precisely, related to the growth rate of nominal income. That is, if the quantity of money grows rapidly, so will nominal income, and vice versa. Although the velocity of circulation is not constant, it is relatively predictable.
   
2. 
   This relation is not obvious, mainly because it takes time for changes in monetary growth to affect income.
   
3. 
   On the average, a change in the rate of monetary growth produces a change in the rate of growth of nominal income six to nine months later. But this is an average.
   
4. 
   If the rate of monetary growth is reduced, then about six to nine months later the rate of growth of nominal income and also of physical output will decline, but the rate of increase in price will be affected very little. There will be downward pressure on prices only as a gap emerges between actual and potential output.
   
5. 
   The effect on prices comes on the average about a year after the effect on nominal income and output, so that the total delay between a change in monetary growth and a change in the rate of inflation averages roughly two years.
   
6. 
   The above relationships are variable. There is many a slip between the monetary change and the income change.
   
7. 
   Monetary changes affect output only in the short run—though “short run” may mean three to five years. In the longer run the rate of monetary growth affects only prices. What happens to output in the long run depends on such “real” factors as the enterprise, ingenuity, and industry of the people; the extent of thrift; the structure of industry and government; the rule of law; the relations among nations; and so on.
   
8. 
   It follows that inflation—a sustained increase in the rate of price change—cannot occur without a more rapid increase in the quantity of money than in output. There are, of course, many possible reasons for monetary growth—from gold discoveries to the manner in which government spending is financed and even the manner in which private spending is financed. The price level may rise or fall for other reasons, too, such as changes in productivity. These produce one-time changes, however—not sustained rates of change.
   
9. 
   Government spending may or may not be inflationary. It will be inflationary if it is financed by creating money—that is, by printing currency or creating bank deposits—and if the resultant rate of monetary growth exceeds the rate of growth of output. If it is financed by taxes or by borrowing from the public, the main effect is that the government spends the funds instead of someone else.
   
10. 
    One of the most difficult things to explain is the way in which a change in the quantity of money affects income. Generally, the initial effect is not on income at all but on the prices of existing assets (bonds, equities, houses, and other physical capital). An increased rate of monetary growth raises the amount of cash people (or businesses) have relative to other assets. The holders of the excess cash will try to correct this imbalance by buying other assets. But one person’s spending is another’s receipts. All the people together cannot change the amount of cash all hold—only the monetary authorities can do that. Their attempts will tend, however, to raise the prices of assets and to reduce interest rates. These changes will in turn encourage spending to produce new assets. Thus the initial effect on balance sheets is translated into an effect on income and spending. In this connection many economists emphasize such assets as durable consumer goods and other real property, and they regard market interest rates as only a small part of the whole complex of relevant rates.
    
11. 
    One important feature of this mechanism is that a change in monetary growth affects interest rates in one direction at the outset and in the opposite direction later on. More rapid monetary growth at first tends to lower interest rates. But later on, as it raises spending and stimulates price inflation, it also produces a rise in the demand for loans that will tend to raise nominal interest rates. Taking the opposite case, a slower rate of monetary growth at first raises interest rates, but later on, as it reduces spending and price inflation, it lowers interest rates. This inconsistent relation between the quantity of money and interest rates explains why interest rates are often a misleading guide to monetary policy.
    
12. 
    These propositions clearly imply that monetary policy is important and that what is most important about monetary policy is its effect on the quantity of money, not on bank credit or total credit or interest rates. Wide swings in the rate of change of the quantity of money are evidently destabilizing and should be avoided. Beyond this, different economists draw different conclusions. Some conclude that the monetary authorities should make deliberate changes in the rate of monetary growth in order to offset other forces making for instability; these changes should be gradual and small and make allowance for the lags involved. Others maintain that not enough is known about the relations between changes in the quantity of money and in prices and output to assure that a discretionary monetary policy will do good rather than harm. They believe that a wiser policy would be simply to have the quantity of money grow at a steady rate over time. Most central banks now set a short-term interest rate target and adjust it frequently. Some also set an inflation target to be achieved over several years, and they adjust the interest rate to keep inflation near the target.
    
13. 
    Countries that choose to control domestic prices must allow their exchange rates to float. The central bank or monetary authority cannot control both interest rates and money stock or both money and the exchange rate. It must choose one of the three.
    
14. 
    If the central bank fixes the exchange rate and permits capital to flow in and out freely, it leaves control of money to external forces and must accept the rate of inflation consistent with its exchange rate.
    

Conclusion
No other subject in economics has been studied longer or more intensively than the subject of money. The result is a vast amount of documented experience and a well-developed body of theoretical analysis. The extent to which the students of monetary problems agree in their basic conclusions is concealed by the tendency of laypersons to exaggerate their differences. But even among professional economists there remain important disagreements, centring mainly on empirical judgments about the stability and form of some of the relations between money and other economic phenomena.
Milton FriedmanAllan H. Meltzer